TEACHING    MANUAL 


AND 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS 

A  TEXTBOOK   FOR   NORMAL   SCHOOLS 
AND  COLLEGES 


BY 

Ira  Samuel  Griffith 

i 

Professor  of  Industrial  Education 
University  of  Wisconsin 


The  Manual  Arts  Press 

PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright,  1920 
Ira  Samuel  Griffith 
Second  Edition,  1921 


•  ».*  * 


a-3  /s-?  + 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 

Teaching  Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  is  intended  as  a  text 
for  use  in  normal  schools  and  colleges.  Its  primary  aim  is  to 
assist  in  the  making  of  necessary  connections  between  the  more 
general  courses  in  educational  psychology  and  theory  of  teach- 
ing and  the  special  work  of  practice  teaching  in  manual  and 
industrial  arts. 

While  the  discussions  of  the  text  largely  presuppose  a 
knowledge  of  psychology  as  a  prerequisite,  mature  students 
and  experienced  teachers  of  the  manual  or  industrial  arts  who 
have  had  no  psychology  may  be  expected  to  pursue  the  read- 
ing of  the  text  successfully  by  devoting  somewhat  more  time 
and  attention  to  the  reference  readings  suggested  at  the  close 
of  each  chapter.  Some  experience  with  manual  or  industrial 
arts  subject-matter  is  necessary  for  an  appropriate  apprecia- 
tion of  the  discussions  of  the  text. 

Lest  the  author  be  accused  of  inconsistency  in  the  matter 
of  his  choice  of  philosophical  bases  for  the  various  discussions, 
he  would  state  that  he  has  intentionally  made  use  of  both  the 
analogies  of  dualism  and  of  the  conception  of  contiguity  and 
continuity.  (Cf.  Dewey's  "Democracy  and  Education," 
especially  Chapter  XXV.)  The  accompanying  charts  should 
make  clear  the  grounds  for  justification  assumed  by  the  author 
in  the  matter  of  bases.  Why  there  should  of  necessity  be  con- 
sidered any  lack  of  contiguity  and  continuity  in  the  concep- 
tion of  dualism,  and  vice  versa,  philosophy  has  not  been  able 
to  prove.  (Cf.  "Dualism/'  The  New  International  Encyclo- 
paedia for  a  brief  statement.)  Given  permission  to  select  the 
experience  or  interval  under  consideration,  and  there  is  no 
reason  in  experience  why  this  permission  should  not  be 
granted,  one  may  with  every  propriety  consider  all  opposites 

3 

483359 


4  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

as  having  continuity  and  contiguity  as  charted,  and  in  every 
situation  in  which  there  is  continuity  and  contiguity  he  may, 
with  equal  propriety,  take  into  consideration  the  opposites.  To 
use  Mr.  Dewey's  own  illustration  for  induction  and  deduction, 
it  is  as  if  one  were  to  look  at  a  stream  of  running  water; 
looking  in  one  direction  we  get  one  set  of  implications,  looking 


Intellect  W 


Direction  of  movement 
Contiguity,  Continuity 


r  *  y 
s  N  o 


Rectangle  of  an   experience  ideally  conditioned. 


in  the  other  direction  we  get  another  opposite  set;  withal, 
there  is  contiguity  and  continuity.  We  may  speak  of  the 
river  in  terms  of  opposites,  namely,  the  source  and  the  mouth ; 
we  may  speak  of  it  in  terms  of  contiguity  and  continuity. 

The  balance,  or  mean,  or  harmony  which*  the  author  urges 
as  an  ideal  toward  which  to  work  does  not  imply  there  can 
or  must  be  a  perfect  balance  in  all  things  at  all  times  irre- 
spective of  the  interval  or  experience  selected.  Rather,  it  is 
a  balance  in  life  of  the  individual  or  of  the  social  group  only 
for  predetermined  intervals  or  experiences  selected  for  dis- 
cussion, with  each  of  these  intervals  or  experiences  considered 
as  a  whole.  Such  a  balance  is  represented  in  the  accompanying 
chart  by  the  diagonal  of  the  upper  figure.  The  second  chart- 
ing represents  what  happens  when  a  selected  experience  or 


PREFACE 5 

interval  is  not  free  to  develop  into  such  idealism,  but  is  con- 
ditioned at  the  period  or  interval  under  consideration  thru  such 
factors  as  natural  development,  economic  or  social  necessity, 
or  otherwise.     While  only  instincts  and  intellect,  manipulative 


Manipulative  skill  fy) 


Intellectual 
activity  (-) 


Contiguity;  Continuity 


Rectangle  of  an  experience  conditioned  thru  nature,  economic  or 
social  necessity,  or  otherwise. 

skill  and  intellectual  activity  are  charted  here,  it  is  possible 
to  chart  in  a  similar  manner  other  opposites.  For  example, 
we  might  have  charted  empirical  concretes  and  theoretic  ab- 
stractions; or,  Froebers  (1)  spontaneity  and  (2)  instruction 
in  conventional  methods  of  procedure;  and,  in  turn,  his  (2) 
instruction  in  conventional  methods  of  procedure  and  (3)  cre- 
ative effort.  In  every  case  there  are  implications  of  extremes 
but  with  contiguity  and  continuity  and  opportunity  for  think- 
ing in  terms  of  balance  when  the  experience  selected  is  con- 
sidered as  a  whole. 

Two  methods  of  procedure  are  common  in  the  preparation 
of  teachers.  One,  most  common  in  colleges  and  universities, 
stresses  theory  of  teaching,  emphasis  upon  principles  or  gener- 
alized information.  The  other,  most  common  in  normal  schools, 
emphasizes  the  mechanics  of  teaching,  subject-matter  and  de- 
vices. Each  method  has  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages. 
Those  trained  by  the  first  method  are  slow  in  attaining  efn- 


6  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ciency  in  the  art  of  teaching  because  they  lack  knowledge 
and  experience  in  the  mechanics  of  teaching.  They  have  the 
theory  but  not  the  art.  Those  trained  in  the  mechanics  or 
details  of  subject-matter  and  method  get  under  way  quickly, 
but  too  often  fail  to  show  marked  professional  growth  in  the 
long  run  because  their  training  has  failed  to  give  them  the 
ability  to  see  the  teaching  process  as  a  science.  The  plan  of 
this  book  is  one  of  balance  upon  the  theoretical  and  the  prac- 
tical. The  discussions  in  the  main  body  of  the  text  are  intended 
to  be  practically  helpful  to  manual  and  industrial  arts  teachers 
by  giving  them  a  basis  in  science  for  their  teaching  practice. 
The  suggestions  in  the  appendices  are  no  less  important.  Ap- 
pendix I  suggests  a  type  of  experience  which  may  well  be 
extended  by  additional  lessons  until  it  shall  occupy  an  amount 
of  time  equal  to  that  devoted  to  the  main  body  of  the  text.  It 
provides  opportunity  for  attention  to  what  we  have  chosen  to 
call  the  mechanics  of  teaching,  attention  to  details  of  subject- 
matter  and  to  devices. 

A  reasonable  requirement  of  a  student  engaged  in  such  work 
might  well  be  that  of  analysis  and  classification  of  teachable 
content,  its  selection  in  terms  of  functional  needs  of  the  group, 
and  its  arrangement  into  the  larger  groups  or  blocks  for  effec- 
tive instruction.  However,  it  has  seemed  best  to  postpone  this 
to  a  later  course,  one  in  Organization  and  Administration,  thus 
allowing  him  time  to  concentrate  in  this  present  course  upon 
the  problems  of  methods  of  teaching  and  daily  lesson  plans, 
with  only  such  organization  and  administration  problems  as 
have  to  do  with  the  successful  presentation  of  the  lesson,  such, 
for  example,  as  sequence  of  operations  in  a  given  problem  or 
job,  materials  and  tools  immediately  necessary  as  a  part  of  the 
work  of  the  given  lesson.  In  the  working  out  of  daily  lesson 
plans,  the  general  outline  for  which  has  been  worked  out 
by  a  supervisor,  to  be  given  to  the  student-teacher,  there  will 
be  provided  a  better  preparation  for  the  organization  problem 


PREFACE 7 

in  the  large  in  this  later  course  than  otherwise  would  be.  The 
present  course  provides  all  the  information  needed  for  the 
practice  teaching  that  the  student-teacher  will  be  called  upon  to 
do.  Practice  teaching  must  be  based  upon  a  supervisor's 
course  outline  rather  than  the  student-teacher's,  if  the  work 
of  the  pupils  is  to  be  well  ordered  and  progressive.  Later,  the 
student- teacher  may  be  taught  to  think  of  the  supervisor's 
outline  in  terms  of  his  own  planning. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  Dr.  W.  W.  Charters,  Director  of 
Educational  Research,  Carnegie  School  of  Technology,  for 
valuable  criticism  and  suggestions  as  to  the  general  form  and 
content  of  the  text;  also,  to  Miss  Ella  V.  Dobbs,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Manual  Arts,  University  of  Missouri,  for  per- 
mission to  use  certain  photographic  illustrations  pertaining  to 
elementary  handwork.  Other  acknowledgments  will  be  found 
in  the  main  text  in  connection  with  materials  loaned. 

I.  S.  G. 


CONTENTS 

Preface .     3 

Chapter  I.     Introduction .13 

1.  Conflicting  aims  in  Education ;  2  Connections  in  the  ner- 
vous system  of  man;  3.  Significance  of  connections  in  the 
nervous  system  of  man  in  determining  certain  aims  in  educa- 
tion ;  4.  Connections  a  basis  for  method ;  5.  Social,  economic, 
and  other  factors  influence  aims  and  practices ;  6.  Summary. 
Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 

Chapter  II.    Classification  and  Differentiation  of  the  Manual 

Arts        27 

1.  Classification  and  differentiation  of  the  manual  arts;  2. 
Technical  manual  arts;  3.  Expressional  manual  arts;  4.  Re- 
lation of  expressional  to  technical  manual  arts ;  5.  Harmoni- 
zation of  conflicting  aims;  6.  Summary.  Reference  reading. 
Class  discussion. 

Chapter  III.     Industrial  Arts 47 

1.  Introduction;  2.  Three  types  of  reactive  need  in  industrial 
arts  education ;  types  evaluated ;  3.  Basis  of  awards  in  in- 
dustry; 4.  Industrial  education  must  provide  opportunity  for 
individual  specialization  along  any  one  of  these  three  types 
of  reaction ;  5.  Fundamental  principles  of  teaching  applicable 
to  industrial  arts ;  6.  Effect  of  emphasizing  efficiency  in  exe- 
cution, or  skill,  in  industrial  arts  education ;  7.  Industrial  arts 
education  and  cultural  values;  8.  Dangers  to  be  avoided;  9. 
Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 

Chapter  IV.     Instincts  and  Capacities 63 

1.  Instincts  and  capacities;  2.  The  law  of  association  as  it 
applies  to  the  utilization  of  instincts;  3.  Instincts  need  con- 
trol; 4.  Means  used  to  control  connections  between  instinct- 
tive  and  more  remote  connections ;  5.  Conflict  of  aims  in 
utilizing  instincts;  6.  Effect  of  delayed  capacities;  7.  The 
teacher's  problem ;  8.  Summary.  Reference  reading.  Osss 
discussion. 


10  CONTENTS 


Chapter  V.     Application  of  the  Principle  of  Apperception  to 

Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  Teaching 75 

1.  Apperception;  2.  The  learning  process;  3.  The  law  of  as- 
sociation applicable  to  the  learning  process;  4.  Some  seem- 
ing violations  of  the  principle  of  apperception;  5.  Logical 
sequence;  6.  Drill  or  frequency  as  an  essential  factor  in 
assimilation;  7.  Summary.  Reference  reading.  Class  dis- 
cussion. 

Chapter  VI.     Interest  and  Attention 85 

1.  Interest  and  attention  the  indispensable  basis  of  every 
method  of  education;  2.  The  law  of  association  applied  to 
interest  and  attention;  3.  Feeling  of  zest  versus  effort;  4. 
Mental  assimilation  a  matter  of  consciousness;  5.  Abstract 
exercises  versus  useful  projects ;  6.  Drill  and  feeling  of  zest ; 
7.  Logical  arrangement  of  subject-matter  versus  psychological 
development  of  the  individual ;  8.  Summary.  Reference  read- 
ing.    Class  discussion. 

Chapter  VII.  Individual  Differences;  The  Group  System  .  96 
1.  The  law  of  probability;  2.  Practical  significance  of  indi- 
vidual differences;  3.  The  group  system;  4.  The  group  sys- 
tem applied  to  the  manual  and  industrial  arts;  5.  Grouping 
for  classification  and  grading;  6.  Grouping  for  developing 
initiative ;  7.  Summary.    Reference  reading.    Class  discussion. 

Chapter  VIII.     Correlation  and  Association 115 

1.  Correlation;  2.  Correlation  another  name  for  association; 
3.  Two  types  of  correlation;  4.  Advantages  and  limitations 
in  immediate  correlations;  5.  Conflicting  aims;  6.  Practical 
difficulties  and  aids  in  correlation;  7.  Summary.  Reference 
reading.     Class  discussion. 

Chapter  IX.     The  Doctrine  of  Discipline 124 

1.  The  problem  of  discipline  stated;  2.  Early  revised  view; 

3.  The  present  view  of  generalized  and  specialized  training; 

4.  Effect  of  present  view  of  discipline  upon  subject-matter 
and  method— logical  basis ;  5.  Modification  of  choice  of  sub- 
ject-matter due  to  child  nature— psychological  basis;  6. 
Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 


CONTENTS  11 


Chapter  X.  Types  of  Thinking  Inherent  in  the  Manual  Arts  136 
1.  Introduction;  2.  Three  types  of  thinking;  3.  Evaluation  of 
types  of  thinking;  4.  Instruction  on  the  lower  plane  and  the  . 
higher  plane — storage  of  knowledge  and  acquisition  of  me- 
chanical skill ;  5.  The  danger  in  extreme  emphasis  upon  man- 
ual and  industrial  arts  as  a  means  of  developing  so-called 
generalized  habits  of  reaction — the  necessity  of  associative 
thinking  as  a  preliminary  to  selective  thinking;  6.  The  dan- 
ger of  extreme  emphasis  upon  associative  thinking  to  the 
neglect  of  selective;  7.  Harmonization  of  conflicting  aims 
in  associative  and  selective  thinking;  8.  Modification  in  prac- 
tice due  to  variation  in  aims;  9.  Summary.  Reference  read- 
ing.     Class   discussion. 

Chapter   XI.     Teaching   Methods   in   Manual  and   Industrial 
Arts 153 

1.  Teaching  methods;  2.  The  deductive  or  imitative  method; 
3  The  inductive  or  heuristic  method;  4.  The  complete 
method ;  5.  Modification  in  method  due  to  variation  in  aims ; 
6.   Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class   discussion. 

Chapter  XII.  The  Lesson;  Its  Component  Parts  .  .  .  .162 
1.  The  necessity  for  carefully  matured  plans;  2.  The  six 
formal  steps;  3.  The  six  formal  steps  not  always  inductive; 
4.  Not  every  lesson  needs  to  be  inductive ;  5.  Modern  con- 
ception of  method;  6.  Instructive  question  rather  than  direc- 
tive statement ;  7.  Intermediate  plan  form ;  8.  Daily  lesson 
plan;   9.    Summary.      Reference   reading.      Class    discussion. 

Chapter  XIII.     Class  Management;   Discipline 176 

1.  Maintaining  order  or  discipline  a  matter  of  instinct  as 
well  as  of  training;  2.  Successful  discipline,  to  a  large  de- 
gree, the  result  of  thoughtful  management;  3.  The  law  of 
association  applicable  to  control  of  conduct ;  4..  General  causes 
for  an  unruly  school;  5.  Specific  problems  of  control;  6. 
Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 

Chapter  XIV.     Standards  and  Tests 183 

1.  Teacher  standards;  2.  Standards  of  pupil  accomplishment 
in  manual  arts  by  grades;  3.   Specific  standards  and  tests; 


12  CONTENTS 


4.  Standards  for  form  and  technic;  5.  Tests  for  form  and 
technic;  6.  Standards  and  tests  for  skill  in  execution;  7. 
Illustrating  a  method  of  attack  in  establishing  pupil  stand- 
ards for  accuracy  in  execution  in  a  given  specific  project; 
8.  Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 

Chapter  XV.  Conditions  Which  Make  for  Progress  .  .  .  200 
1.  Conflicting  aims  in  education;  2.  Manual  and  industrial 
arts  an  attempt  to  provide  a  better  balance  between  the 
abstract  and  the  concrete  in  education — between  theory  and 
practice;  3.  Need  for  a  scientific  treatment  of  subject-matter; 
4.  Limitations  which  arise  from  undue  emphasis  upon  theory 
or  science;  5.  The  place  of  texts;  6.  Race  progress  demands 
that  a  balance  be  maintained  between  conflicting  aims;  7. 
Summary.     Reference  reading.     Class  discussion. 

Appendix  I.     Special  Method  Procedure     ........  213 

1.  Special  method  aims;  Directions  for  observation;  type 
lessons. 

Appendix   II.     Type  Outlines 221 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  Conflicting  Aims  in  Education.  In  no  other  line  of 
human  endeavor  has  there  been  less  unanimity  and  more  de- 
bate as  to  aims  and  practice  than  in  the  field  of  education. 
Aims  have  been  defined  and  redefined  and  practice  has  passed 
thru  an  equally  wide  range  of  repeated  experiments.  For  ex- 
ample, one  century,  or  part  of  a  century,  has  emphasized 
natural  or  instinctive  tendencies,  such  as  may  be  found  in 
Rousseau's  first  teachings;  nearly  every  century  at  one  time 
or  another  has  tended  to  stress  the  intellectual  at  the  expense 
of  the  manual;  the  present  sees  a  wide-spread  effort  to  em- 
phasize automatic  connections  in  the  form  of  trade  or  voca- 
tional education  highly  specific  in  character.  Not  infrequently 
educators  have  failed  to  appreciate  that  certain  very  important 
aims  in  education  conflict  one  with  another  and  have  unwisely 
sought  to  condemn  every  practice  which  failed  to  stress  the 
particular  educational  need  which  they  themselves  saw.  One 
educator  holds  up  his  hands  in  horror  and  exclaims,  "What 
are  our  schools  coming  to!  We  have  painting,  and  sewing, 
and  cooking,  and  blacksmithing !  What  next?"  Another 
wants  his  school  so  organized  that  it  will  rival  real  life  con- 
ditions, even  to  the  extent  of  having  a  factory  system  in  which 
boys  are  to  be  made  so  skillful  they  may  turn  out  a  product 
that  will  make  the  system  self-supporting,  or  even  profitable. 
One  proclaims  education  a  preparation  for  living.  Another 
insists  that  education  is  teaching  children  to  do  better  those 
things  children  normally  like  to  do. 

Educational  theory  and  practice  of  today  is  tending  more 
and  more  toward  the  recognition  of  the  legitimacy  of  a  variety 
of  aims  in  education  based  upon  the  more  common  character- 

13 


14  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

istics  of  individual  and  social  differences  in  pupils.  For  ex- 
ample, schools  are  being  builded  and  equipped  for  the  especial 
training  of  boys  and  girls  who,  because  of  economic  or  other 
reasons,  do  not  enter  the  traditional  or  general  high  school. 
These  schools  are  stressing  vocational  information  and  voca- 
tional training.  This  is  as  it  should  be.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
however,  that  such  vocational  training  meets  the  need  of  a 
particular  group  and  can  no  more  lay  claim  to  being  possessed 
of  the  aim  of  education  than  can  a  college  preparatory  school. 
What  is  more,  the  aim  of  such  a  training  may  be  such  as  to 
conflict  with  other  equally  legitimate  educational  aims  so  that 
time  so  spent  is  useless  in  so  far  as  these  other  needs  are 
concerned. 

The  homely  story  of  the  blind  men  and  the  elephant  well 
illustrates  the  attitude  one  is  likely  to  assume  with  reference 
to  the  beliefs  of  others  educationally,  unless  he  studies  dis- 
cerningly. The  reader  will  recall  that  the  blind  man  who 
happened  to  grasp  the  elephant's  ear  concluded  that  elephants 
were  like  palm  leaf  fans ;  the  one  who  touched  the  elephant's 
side  concluded  that  an  elephant  was  like  the  side  of  a  wall; 
the  one  who  grasped  the  elephant's  tail  thought  elephants  were 
like  rope;  while  the  one  who  happened  to  clasp  his  arms 
about  the  elephant's  leg  was  certain  elephants  were  like  tree 
trunks.  Each  was  right  in  so  far  as  he  had  informed  himself 
of  a  part  of  the  body ;  he  was  wrong  in  his  hasty  or  impartial 
generalization  as  to  the  likeness  of  the  whole  body.  In  edu- 
cation we  shall  do  well  to  refrain  from  hasty  generalizations 
that  the  whole  body  of  educational  need  is  like  that  with 
which  we  have  informed  ourselves  and  like  that  alone. 

2.  Connections  in  the  Nervous  System  of  Man.  Before 
the  place  and  the  method  of  the  manual  and  industrial  arts 
in  education  can  be  discussed  with  intelligence,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  review  some  of  our  psychology. 


INTRODUCTION  15 


For  the  sake  of  clearness  and  convenience  we  may  classify 
connections  in  the  nervous  system  of  human  beings  as: 

1.  Connections  between  impression  or  sensation  on  the  one 
hand  and  consequent  muscular  reaction  on  the  other. 

2.  Connections  between  impression  or  sensation  and  thought 
or  consciousness. 

3.  Connections  between  one  thought  and  another  thought. 

4.  Connections  between  thought  and  bodily  action  or  re- 
action. 

An  example  of  the  first  type  of  connection  is  found  in  the 
crying  of  the  infant  because  of  hunger  or  pain,  or  the  feeding 
of  the  infant  in  its  earliest  hours  before  intelligence  has  arisen. 
The  touch  of  the  lips  of  the  infant  to  the  mother's  breast  sug- 
gests the  appropriate  reaction  or  feeding  movement.  Such 
connections  are  known  as  instinctive  or  unlearned.  Intelligence 
or  thought  or  consciousness  is  absent  in  these  early  mani- 
festations. 

Connections  of  the  second  type  are  later  in  their  appearance 
and  are  the  result  of  many  conflicting  manifestations  of  con- 
nections number  one.  A  familiar  illustration  of  the  develop- 
ment of  such  connections  is  that  of  the  very  young  child  at 
a  window  before  which  hangs  a  brightly  colored  ball.  In  the 
course  of  its  random  arm  movements,  making  connections 
as  in  number  one,  it  accidentally  strikes  the  ball  or  its  sup- 
porting string.  At  first  the  noise  resulting  from  the  ball's 
striking  the  glass  goes  unnoticed.  In  the  course  of  a  num- 
ber of  such  accidental  strikings  of  the  ball  against  the  glass 
thru  such  random  movements  of  the  arms  of  the  child,  there 
begin  to  form  in  the  mind  of  the  child  connections  between 
the  idea  noise  and  the  bright  object.  In  other  words,  con- 
sciousness is  beginning  to  make  its  appearance  in  respect  to 
these  particular  connections. 

In  primitive  man,  and  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  childhood 
of  civilized  man,  such  connections  as  that  just  described  for 


16 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


number  two,  Fig.  1.,  almost  immediately  take  the  form  of 
connections  between  thought  and  action,  connection  number 
four.  The  child  no  sooner  connects  the  impression  made  by 
the  brightly  colored  ball  with  the  idea  of  noise  resulting  from 
his  moving  arms  than  he  tries  to  produce  the  noise  thru  moving 


Native  or 
instinctive,  re- 
actions controlled , 


by  feeling 


Sensations 

or  impressions 

mainly  thru 

movement 


th 


«tf 


tion5 


*i 


Reactions 

PATH     I  \        *Z I    controlled  by 

Learned      Thought +t nought    Connect, on~s\         '>nidJ*ct>     t 

—p, —  ~       \  Connect  ions*3.    h "  '       -    V  instinct  subject 

JJonn.*z.\  /Connections  *+\    to  intellect    j 


Reactions 
^once  controlled* 
by  intellect 
now 


feeling 


or 


habit 


Fig.  1.     Connections  of  Mind  and  Body. 

the  arms.  Such  connections  between  thought  and  action  may, 
however,  be  postponed,  taking  the  form  of  connections  number 
three,  Fig.  1.,  connections  between  one  thought  and  another 
thought — all  the  while  delaying  action  or  reaction. 

Connections  number  five,  Fig.  1.,  differ  from  connections 
number  one  only  as  to  origin.  In  connections  number  one, 
reactions  result  from  unlearned  feelings  of  relationship;  in 
number  two  they  find  their  origin  in  intellect. 


INTRODUCTION  17 


3.  Significance  of  Connections  in  the  Nervous  System  of 
Man  in  Determining  Certain  Aims  in  Education.  Aims  in 
education,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  have  been  variously 
given,  and  educational  practice  correspondingly  modified  at 
different  periods  of  educational  development.  Of  the  varia- 
tions which  have  come,  probably  none  have  had  greater  signi- 
ficance than  those  which  have  come  thru  the  changing  empha- 
sis placed  upon  the  various  connections  diagrammed  in  Fig.  1. 
Since  man  is  not  all  mind  or  all  body,  but  one  mind  so  insepar- 
ably connected  with  a  body  that  life  ceases  at  separation,  the 
diagram  is  true,  of  course,  only  as  it  represents  such  emphasis. 

An  examination  of  a  number  of  current  notions  of  education 
will  serve  to  point  out  the  significance  of  the  statement  just 
made.  For  example,  we  are  wont  to  say  "Knowledge  is 
power."  Such  a  notion  of  education  is  bound  to  result  in 
emphasis  upon  intellect,  connections  between  thought  and 
thought,  upon  race  experience,  upon  cramming  or  storage  of 
facts,  upon  books,  upon  long  rows  of  desks  and  bodily  inac- 
tivity. Again,  we  are  informed  that  "It  is  not  knowledge  that 
is  power,  but  applied  knowledge ;  not  what  is  known,  but  what 
can  be  done  with  what  is  known."  This  latter  idea  places 
emphasis  upon  connections  number  three  and  number  four, 
Fig.  1.  Another  educational  philosopher  tells  us  that  "Educa- 
tion is  what  one  has  left  after  he  has  forgotten  all  he  ever 
learned."  At  first  thought  we  are  inclined  to  ridicule  such 
a  notion  of  education.  However,  there  is  truth  in  the  state- 
ment. It  is  merely  the  placing  of  extreme  emphasis  upon 
automatic  connections,  path  number  three,  connection  number 
five,  Fig.  1.  The  condition  one  finds  himself  in  when  called 
upon  to  explain  some  method  of  procedure  or  position  of  the 
hands  in  some  operation  which  has  been  performed  many 
times,  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  what  this  educator  is  try- 
ing to  designate  as  education.  One  can  perform  the  operation, 
or  he  can  readily  place  his  hands  in  position  for  the  required 


18  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


operation,  but  he  finds  great  difficulty  in  telling  another  how 
it  is  to  be  done.  Intellect  has  ceased  to  function;  habit  or 
feeling  has  taken  its  place. 

It  is  essential  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  discussions 
which  follow  that  the  student  have  a  clear  notion  of  the  dis- 
tinction which  is  made  between  learning  thru  feeling  and 
learning  thru  intellect.  The  student  will  readily  understand 
what  is  meant  by  the  term  intellect.  The  term  feeling,  how- 
ever, is  used  in  a  rather  special  or  uncommon  sense.  The 
following  extract  from  a  current  newspaper  article  will  illus- 
trate the  peculiar  meaning  attached  to  the  word  feeling  in  the 
discussions  which  follow:  "French  instructors,"  it  says,  in 
explaining  the  method  of  training  aviators,  "express  no  pref- 
erences, except  for  the  double  control  in  teaching.  It  permits 
the  instructor  to  take  his  pupils  up  behind  him,  and  as  the 
entire  control  is  double  (like  the  coupled  handlebars  of  a 
tandem  "bike")  the  teacher  guides  the  aeroplane,  but  the 
pupil,  having  the  same  controls  in  his  hands,  feels  every 
movement  made  by  his  instructor.  Little  by  little  he  acquires 
the  habit  and  feels  that  it  is  he  who  is  piloting,  and  the  instruc- 
tor, as  he  feels  the  pupil  getting  the  right  movement,  slackens 
and  lets  the  pupil  do  more  and  more,  until,  at  the  end,  the 
original  positions  are  reversed — it  is  the  pupil  who  pilots  the 
aeroplane  and  the  instructor  who  feels  him  thru  the  double 
controls  as  he  does  it."  This  type  of  learning  process  is  desig- 
nated by  Dr.  Charles  H.  Judd*,  as  learning  by  direct  interpreta- 
tion— direct  in  that  it  does  not  involve  consciousness  or 
intelligence,  or  at  least  tends  to  eliminate  these  a's  quickly 
as  possible  in  favor  of  learning  thru  feeling. 

The  significance  of  the  connections  of  the  nervous  system 
in  determining  certain  educational  needs  is  clearly  set  forth 
in  Henri  Bergson's  philosophy  of  the  function  and  origin  of 
instinct  and  intelligence  when  this  philosophy  has  been  analyzed 

*"Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers,"  page  59,  et.  seq.  Appleton,  1903. 


INTRODUCTION  19 


in  terms  of  the  connections  enumerated  above  and  diagrammed 
in  Fig.  1.  His  discussion  serves  well  to  point  out  the  limita- 
tions of  a  type  of  education  which  would  stress  intellect  to 
the  neglect  of  feeling  and  vice  versa.  ''Instinct  and  intelli- 
gence" he  says  in  his  Creative  Evolution,  page  143,  "therefore 
represent  two  divergent  solutions  equally  fitting,  of  one  and 
the  same  problem,"  namely,  the  problem  of  meeting  one's 
environment.  "We  know,"  he  continues,  page  172,  in  illustra- 
tion of  the  strength  of  instinct  or  feeling  such  as  is  repre- 
sented by  path  one,  Fig.  1.,  "that  the  different  species  of  the 
hymenoptera  that  have  this  paralyzing  instinct  lay  their  eggs 
in  spiders,  beetles  or  caterpillars,  which,  having  first  been  sub- 
jected by  the  wasp  to  a  skillful  surgical  operation,  will  go  on 
living  motionless  a  certain  number  of  days,  and  thus  provide 
the  larvae  with  fresh  meat.  In  the  sting  which  they  give  the 
nerve  centers  of  their  victim,  in  order  to  destroy  its  power  of 
moving  about  without  killing  it,  these  different  species  of 
hymenoptera  take  into  account,  so  to  speak,  the  different 
species  of  prey  they  respectively  attack.  The  Scolia,  which 
attacks  the  larva  of  the  rose  beetle,  stings  it  in  one  point 
only,  but  in  this  point  the  motor  ganglia  are  concentrated  and 
those  alone;  the  stinging  of  other  ganglia  might  cause  death 
and  putrefaction,  which  must  be  avoided.  The  yellow  winged 
Sphex,  which  has  chosen  the  cricket  for  its  victim,  knows 
that  the  cricket  has  three  nerve  centers  which  serve  its  three 
pairs  of  legs — or  at  least  it  acts  as  if  it  knew  this.  It  stings 
the  insect  first  under  the  neck,  then  behind  the  prothorax,  and 
then  where  the  thorax  joins  the  abdomen.  The  Ammophila 
Hirsuta  gives  nine  successive  strokes  of  its  sting  upon  nine 
nerve  centers  of  its  caterpillar,  and  then  seizes  the  head  and 
squeezes  it  in  its  mandibles,  enough  to  cause  paralysis  without 
death.  The  general  theme  is  "the  necessity  of  paralyzing  with- 
out killing."  *  *  *  "It  is  in  vain  that  we  try  to  express 
it  in  terms  of  any  idea :  It  must  have  been  originally  felt  rather 


20  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

than  thought."  It  is  an  unlearned  feeling  of  relationships,  as 
it  were,  having  nothing  to  do  with  intelligence  or  thought. 
Its  very  strength  lies  in  the  fact  that  appropriate  action  fol- 
lows this  feeling  of  relationships  without  hesitation  and  conse- 
quent representation  resulting  in  consciousness  or  intelligence. 

The  preceding  paragraph  should  make  plain  the  fact  that 
what  has,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  been  called  feeling  plays 
no  small  part  in  the  control  of  appropriate  responses  to  stimuli, 
and  as  such  must  be  given  appropriate  consideration  in  any 
scheme  of  education.  The  responses  mentioned  have  to  do 
with  reactions  thru  feeling  not  controlled  by  intellect ;  they  are 
of  path  one,  Fig.  1.  There  are  also  responses  thru  feeling 
which  responses  at  one  time  were  controlled  thru  intelligence 
or  consciousness  or  thought.  These  latter  responses  are  of 
path  number  two,  Fig.  1.,  in  their  beginnings  but  are  trans- 
lated to  path  number  three  thru  frequency. 

Just  what  relationship  intelligence  has  with  feeling  in  this 
transformation  may  be  learned  from  the  following  quotation 
in  Bergson's  Creative  Evolution,  page  145.  "The  conscious- 
ness of  a  living  being  may  be  defined  as  an  arithmetical  dif- 
ference between  potential  and  real  activity.  It  measures  the 
interval  between  representation  and  action.  It  may  be  in- 
ferred from  this  that  intelligence  is  likely  to  point  toward 
consciousness  and  instinct  toward  unconsciousness.  For  where 
the  implement  to  be  used  is  organized  by  nature,  the  material 
furnished  by  nature,  and  the  result  to  be  obtained  willed  by 
nature,  there  is  little  left  to  choice ;  the  consciousness  inherent 
in  the  representation  is  therefore  counterbalanced,  whenever  it 
tends  to  disengage  itself,  by  the  performance  of  the  act, 
identical  with  the  representation,  which  forms  the  counter- 
part. Where  consciousness  appears,  it  does  not  so  much  light 
up  instinct  itself  as  the  thwartings  to  which  instinct  is  subject; 
it  is  the  deficit  of  instinct,  the  distance  between  the  act  and 
the  idea,  that  becomes  consciousness  so  that  consciousness, 


INTRODUCTION  21 


here,  is  only  an  accident.  Essentially,  consciousness  only  em- 
phasizes the  starting  point  of  instinct,  the  point  at  which  the 
whole  series  of  automatic  movement  is  released.  Deficit,  on 
the  contrary,  is  the  normal  state  of  intelligence.  Laboring 
under  difficulties  is  the  very  essence." 

It  should  not  be  hastily  concluded  from  the  strength  of  the 
plea  just  made  for  attention  to  feeling  or  direct  interpretation 
in  setting  situations  for  educational  experiences  that  there  is 
no  place  or  only  a  small  place  for  attention  to  intellect.  What- 
ever man  might  have  gained  by  a  biological  evolution  along 
the  line  of  dependence  upon  instinct  alone  to  the  exclusion  of 
intelligence,  the  fact  remains  that  he  has  chosen  to  live  more 
largely  thru  intellectual  control  than  have  hymenoptera  and 
other  insect  and  animal  forms,  and  that  consciousness  must 
ever  play  a  large  part  in  the  education  of  his  young.  Adjust- 
ment to  environment  may  be  accomplished  thru  instinct,  path 
number  one,  Fig.  1.;  this  same  end  may  be  accomplished  in 
the  case  of  man  thru  the  taking  of  path  number  two  and  thru 
repetition  reducing  mental  effort  until  the  reaction  takes  the 
form  of  path  number  three.  For  example,  we  may  take  the 
case  of  a  physician  who  performs  a  skillful  surgical  operation : 
originally,  mental  effort  was  strong;  by  repeated  operations 
this  is  reduced  until  reaction  places  almost  complete  depen- 
dence upon  feeling  or  sense-impression.  The  reaction  be- 
comes a  matter  of  habit.  Habit  accomplishes  for  the  individual 
what  instinct  accomplishes  for  the  species :  an  effective  reaction 
to  stimuli  without  the  intervention  of  thought,  or  at  least  it 
tends  to  accomplish  this. 

Professor  James  says,  "An  uneducated  person  is  one  who 
is  nonplussed  by  all  but  the  most  habitual  situations."  This 
negative  statement  of  what  education  is  should  remind  us  that 
education  has  a  second  task.  Habit  formation  in  the  realm 
of  muscle  is  but  one  factor,  the  development  of  intelligence, 
of  ability  to  do  selective  or  original  thinking,  is  of  no  less 


22  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

importance.  What  is  more,  it  must  be  recognized  that  these 
two  ends  or  aims,  conflicting  as  they  do,  can  find  no  setting 
in  the  educational  scheme  wherein  one  may  be  emphasized 
without  a  consequent  sacrifice  upon  the  part  of  the  other.  We 
may  choose  to  emphasize  habit  in  the  realm  of  muscle;  we 
may  choose  to  emphasize  intellect;  we  may  choose  to  balance 
one  against  the  other  with  a  consequent  lack  of  effectiveness 
in  each  as  compared  with  what  might  have  been  secured  thru 
lack  of  balance.  James  is  stating  in  another  way  the  fact 
that  the  development  of  intelligence  is  an  essential  part  of 
education. 

4.  Connections  a  Basis  for  Method.  In  general,  a  con- 
sideration of  the  connections  in  the  nervous  system  of  man 
justifies  the  following  statements:  (1)  The  cycle  of  develop- 
ment of  an  individual  consists  of  a  period  characterized  by 
instinctive  or  random  movement;  (2)  out  of  these  random 
movements  develop  consciousness  or  intelligence;  (3)  intelli- 
gence marks  a  hiatus  or  hold-up  between  instinctive  prompt- 
ings and  consequent  motor  reaction  and  as  such  will  have  no 
value  until  it  takes  discharge  in  the  form  of  action.  (4)  Only 
as  man,  or  the  race,  maintains  a  balance  between  intellect  and 
feeling  is  race  progress  best  effected.  Individuals  may  be- 
come specialists :  some  may  become  mind  workers,  others  hand 
workers ;  that  is,  some  may  emphasize  intellect,  others  habits 
controlled  by  feeling,  but  race  progress  demands  the  main- 
tenance of  a  balance.  (5)  Individual  welfare  demands  that 
this  balance  be  maintained,  certainly  thru  the  elementary 
period  of  education  or  until  the  natural  aptitudes  of  youth  may 
have  opportunity  to  manifest  themselves. 

An  education  which  emphasizes  intellectual  activity  for 
any  great  length  of  time  and  neglects  opportunity  for  appro- 
priate motor  response  thru  application,  is  uneconomical,  to 
say  the  least,  for  nothing  is  assuredly  assimilated  until  it 
issues  in  action  of  one  kind  or  another.    If  the  application  is 


INTRODUCTION  23 


far  removed  in  time,  memory  will  fail.  On  the  other  hand, 
an  education  which  is  so  direct  in  its  connections  between 
impression  and  reaction  that  it  allows  little  time  for  thought 
or  reflection,  is  ill  advised  in  that  it  neglects  to  take  into  ac- 
count the  fact  that  man  meets  new  situations  more  effectively 
thru  the  workings  of  intellect  than  of  instinct,  or  at  least  as 
effectively,  and  intelligence  does  not  function  or  have  a  part 
in  instinctive  and  automatic  connections.  The  saying  "It  is 
hard  to  teach  an  old  dog  new  tricks"  is  but  another  way  of 
saying  that  unless  the  memory  processes  are  kept  open  progress 
is  not  possible.    Memory  is  of  mind,  of  intellect,  not  of  feeling. 

5.  Social,  Economic,  and  Other  Factors  Influence  Aims 
and  Practices..  Psychological  considerations,  such  as  those 
just  mentioned,  are  not  the  only  ones  to  be  considered  in  de- 
termining educational  aims  and  practices,  of  course.  There 
are  social  and  economic,  ethical  and  other  considerations 
equally  as  important.  What  is  more,  not  a  few  of  these  latter 
considerations  are  conflicting  in  their  aims  with  those  of 
psychology.  We  know,  for  example,  that  early  fixing  of 
highly  specialized  habits  in  industrial  pursuits  does  not  pro- 
duce a  very  high  type  of  education  in  many  respects.  We  also 
know  that  very  few  pupils  who  are  destined  to  perform  such 
industrial  work  can  remain  or  do  remain  in  schools  thru  that 
age  which  best  fits  the  development  of  intelligence  in  connec- 
tion with  their  industrial  work,  Fig.  2.  It  becomes  a  question, 
then,  of  turning  out  a  type  somewhat  better  fitted  for  earning 
his  bread  and  butter  in  industrial  work  requiring  relatively 
little  initiative  or  of  letting  him  go  without  even  doing  this 
much  for  him.  Psychology  and  ethics  will  tell  us  what  ought 
to  be  our  educational  practice ;  social  and  economic  needs  will 
tell  us  what  must  be,  until  that  time  when  our  economic  con- 
ditions are  made  to  square  with  our  ethics. 

If  the  discussions  which  follow  are  found  advocating  higher 
types  of  educational  need  in  that  they  set  situations  which  tend 


24 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


to  develop  initiative,  it  must  not  be  concluded  that  there  is 
lack  of  sympathy  for  attention  to  the  needs  of  those  who 
cannot  pursue  such  courses  because  of  economic  need  or 
otherwise.     On  the  other  hand,  when  the  discussions  lead  to 


Percent 
retained 

100 


90 
60 

70 
60 
JO 
40 
60 
ZO 
10 

0 


Percent 
Grades       High  School    last 

0 


10 
ZO 
30 
40 
JO 
60 
70 
60 
90 
100 


Fig.  2.     Adapted  from  Dr.  Ayer's  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  p.  71. 

a  justification  of  such  a  type  of  education  as  takes  the  imma- 
ture pupil  and  trains  him  so  specifically  for  an  industrial  task 
requiring  so  little  intelligence  that  he  can  never  hope  to  rise 
much  higher  than  a  machine  tender,  it  must  not  be  inferred 
that  this  is  other  than  doing  the  best  for  the  pupil  that  unfav- 
orable economic  and  social  conditions  permit. 

For  example,  boys  are  not  sufficiently  developed  physically 
and  mentally,  to  justify  the  giving  of  vocational  work  of  a 
serious  nature  much  before  sixteen  years.     This  fact  is  evi- 


INTRODUCTION  25 


denced  by  the  reluctance  of  employers  to  take  on  apprentices 
much  younger  than  this.  Of  course,  if  they  have  a  type  of 
work  where  it  is  possible  to  exploit  the  boy's  labor  they  may 
take  him  on,  but  if  it  is  a  matter  of  teaching  him  a  trade,  for 
example,  they  do  not  want  the  boy  of  younger  age.  Psycho- 
logically, then,  the  high  school  age  is  the  place  for  industrial 
training  of  a  serious  nature.  Over  against  this  fact  we  must 
place  the  fact  that  few  boys  who  go  into  industry  as  journey- 
men remain  thru  the  grammar  schools.  Raising  the  limit  of 
the  school  age  for  compulsory  school  attendance  with  part- 
time  work  will  aid;  it  does  not  solve  the  problem  of  urgent 
economic  need  in  the  home. 

Rightly  considered,  then,  the  problem  becomes  one  of  pro- 
viding courses  that  permit  pupils  to  accomplish  all  they  are 
able  to  accomplish  in  the  time  available.  These  in  turn  are 
limited  by  problems  which  arise  in  matters  of  school  admin- 
istration, such  as  lack  of  funds,  lack  of  sufficient  demand  for 
certain  kinds  of  work,  etc.,  to  warrant  the  formation  of  classes 
and  the  employment  of  teachers,  lack  of  suitable  teachers,  and 
lack  of  adequate  salary  schedules  calculated  to  encourage 
strong  men  to  expend  the  necessary  time  and  money  required 
to  properly  equip  themselves  for  this  kind  of  work. 

6.  Summary.  Aims  in  education  conflict.  Since  many 
of  these  aims  are  equally  important  for  purposes  of  individual 
and  social  welfare,  it  follows  that  educational  practices  must 
vary. 

An  examination  of  the  connections  in  the  nervous  system 
of  man  teaches  us  that  society  and  the  race  depend  for  suc- 
cessful maintenance  and  progress  upon  the  development  both 
of  efficient  forms  of  thinking  and  of  action.  This  balance 
may  be  maintained  for  society  and  the  race  thru  the  utiliza- 
tion of  rather  highly  specialized  forms  of  each  type.  Elemen- 
tary education,  however,  will  do  well  to  maintain  a  balance 
between  thought  and  action   for  purposes  of  giving  to  the 


26  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

adolescent  a  proper  basis  in  action  for  later  specialization  in 
thought,  and  vice  versa,  and  for  determining  aptitudes. 

Economic,  social,  and  other  needs  of  society  and  of  the 
individual  will  affect  educational  aims  and  practices,  fre- 
quently running  counter  to  those  set  by  psychology  and 
ethics.  A  consideration  of  immediate  economic  and  social 
needs  may  point  to  the  wisdom  of  offering  opportunity  for 
early  entrance  into  industry,  even  at  the  expense  of  oppor- 
tunity for  the  development  of  industrial  and  social  intelligence. 
It  also  points  to  the  need  for  continuation  courses  to  supple- 
ment such  lack. 

Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of   Teaching,   Chapter   XIII. 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapters  III — V. 
Charters :     Methods  of  Teaching,  Chapter  I. 

Class  Discussion : 

1.  Discuss  the  need  of  motor  responses. 

2.  Differentiate  the  varieties  of  motor  responses. 

3.  State  the  advantages  and  limitations  of  verbal  responses. 

4.  Discuss  advantages  and  limitations  of  expression  thru  the 
activities  of  the  arts  and  industries. 

5.  Define  education  so  as  to  indicate  the  part  to  be  played  by 
the  manual   arts,   if  you   can. 

6.  James  says,  "An  uneducated  person  is  one  who  is  non- 
plussed by  all  but  the  most  habitual  situations."  Is  there 
no  place,  then,  for  the  training  of  boys  and  girls  as  indus- 
trial automatons?     Discuss. 

7.  Supt.  Dyer  says,  "Education  is  what  is  left  after  all  that 
has  been  learned  is  forgotten."     Discuss. 

8.  "No  reception  without  reaction,  no  impression  without  cor- 
relative expression."  "Motor  consequences  are  what  clinch 
it"  (An  impression).  Can  you  find  an  argument  in  these 
statements  for  manual  arts  as  a  means  of  teaching  other 
subjects  as  history,   geography,   etc? 


CHAPTER  II 

CLASSIFICATION    AND    DIFFERENTIATION    OF   THE    MANUAL   ARTS 

1.     Classification  and  Differentiation  of  the  Manual  Arts. 

Observation  of  common  practices  in  those  activities  designated 
manual  arts  or  manual  training  will  show  wide  differences 
in  the  practices,  and  investigation  will  make  evident  equally 
wide  variation  as  to  basis  for  justification.     Not  infrequently 
like  practices  will  be  found  justified  upon  divergent  grounds. 
For  the  sake  of  convenience,  these  practices  and  their  grounds 
for  justification  may  be  differentiated  one  from  another  as 
they  tend  to  stress  one  or  another  of  the  following  functions : 
(1)    A  means   of   expressing  ideas — "No    reception   without 
reaction,  no  impression  without  correlative  expression.',    "Mo- 
tor consequences  are  what  clinch."     (2)  A  means  of  develop- 
ing, certain  attitudes  of  mind  and  habits  of  body  and  mind  in 
some  one  or  more  lines  of  industrial  activity,  not  as  ends  in 
themselves  in  connection  with  the  particular  trade  dealt  with 
so  much  as  attitudes  and  habits  chiefly  useful  as  a  means  of 
interpreting   other   related    experiences.      Upon    this   ground 
every  boy  of  an  upper  grammar  grade  may  be  required  to 
take  woodwork  and  mechanical  drawing  even  tho  it  is  known 
that  very  few  of  them  will  become  workers  in  wood  in  after 
life.     Such  industrial  experience,  as  differentiated  from  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  academic,  etc.,  will  make  for  an  apprecia- 
tion  of    things    industrial.      (3)    A   means   of    developing   a 
knowledge  of  technical  processes  and  habits  of  mind  and  body 
in  a  given  industrial  activity  as  ends  immediately  helpful  to 
the  individual  because  he  will  make  use  of  them  in  the  pursuit 
of  this  activity  in  after  life.    The  first  of  these  we  may  desig- 
nate as  expressional  manual  arts ;  the  second,  technical  manual 
arts  for  general  educational  purposes;  the  third,  technical 
manual  arts  for  vocational  ends.    The  function  of  the  first  is 

27 


28  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

free  expression;  of  the  second,  appreciation  of  industrial 
activities;  of  the  third,  efficiency.  The  first  is  psychological  in 
its  signifiance;  the  second  is  cultural  and  disciplinary;  the 
third  is  vocational. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  such  classifications  are  for  con- 
venience in  discussion  and  that  no  clear-cut  distinctions  actually 
exist  between  such  groups  in  reality.  The  differences  are 
matters  of  emphasis  or  of  tendency  rather  than  of  kind.  For 
example,  those  values  which  come  thru  opportunity  for  ex- 
pression of  ideas  are  to  be  found  in  manual  arts  justified  on 
the  ground  of  discipline,  but  in  minor  degree.  Close  atten- 
tion to  acquiring  efficiency  in  some  one  trade  has  cultural 
value  in  that  it  develops  appreciation  and  broadens  the  horizon 
to  that  extent,  minor  tho  it  may  be. 

The  difficulties  involved  when  one  undertakes  to  classify 
sharply  are  seen  in  the  attempt  to  place  a  type  of  work  which 
is  beginning  to  find  favor  with  administrators  of  high  schools 
wherein  large  numbers  of  boys  must  be  provided  with  oppor- 
tunity for  manipulative  activity.  These  boys  are  not  des- 
tined to  make  their  living  thru  participation  in  skilled  crafts, 
at  least  not  as  workmen.  Administrators  with  a  functional 
notion  of  education  object  to  the  traditional  type  of  manual 
arts  with  its  justification  thru  culture,  discipline,  appreciation, 
and  are  asking  for  a  type  wherein  the  manipulative  processes 
and  the  accompanying  information  will  serve  as  a  means  the 
better  to  prepare  the  prospective  householder  to  perform  the 
many  home  tasks  of  an  industrial  nature  requiring  minor 
technical  knowledge  and  skill.  Such  work  will  not  class 
fully  as  vocational  as  the  term  has  been  defined;  it  is 
too  strongly  functional  to  class  as  a  discipline  and  an  appre- 
ciation in  its  implications.  It  is,  as  it  were,  on  the  dividing 
line  between  the  two.  Until  this  type  becomes  more  common 
than  it  now  is  we  may  simply  class  it  as  technical  manual  arts 
for  general  educational  purposes. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  29 

Manual  arts  and  vocational  education  for  industrial  ac- 
tivities have  been  confused  as  to  place  and  function  because  they 
differ  not  as  to  kind  but  as  to  emphasis  upon  certain  factors. 
The  terms  vocational,  prevocational,  industrial  or  trade,  and 
pre-industrial  or  pre-trade  are  terms  which  have  often  been 
applied  to  work  differing  in  no  essential  characteristics  from 


Fig.  3.    Report  on  Dominant  Aims  of  Manual  Arts  Instruction  in  156 
cities  in  the  U.  S.  A.    From  Bulletin  No.  32,  1916,  Bureau  of 
Education,    Washington,    D.    C. 

what  has  long  been  known  as  manual  training.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  differentiate  vocational  industrial  education  from 
manual  arts  by  assigning  to  manual  arts  a  method  of  pro- 
cedure known  as  the  craftsman's  while  vocational  industrial 
education  would  be  distinguished  by  its  use  of  the  factory 
system  of  production  in  quantity. 

This  differentiation,  while  convenient,  is  confusing,  for 
experience  has  shown  that  both  manual  arts  and  vocational 
industrial  arts  may  accomplish  their  ends  thru  either  method 
of  procedure;  in  fact,  both  methods  are  needed  in  each  to 
give  a  complete  experience.  Probably  the  notion  that  manual 
arts  is  primarily  a  training  for  appreciation  of  things  indus- 
trial, good  for  all  pupils  without  regard  to  their  probable 
future  work  in  life — a  culture,  a  discipline — and  that  voca- 


30 


.TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


tional  education  is  primarily  a  training  for  efficiency  in  pre- 
paration for  entrance  into  some  specific  life  activity  which 
the  pupil  expects  to  follow,  is  the  most  helpful  view  for  pur- 
poses of  differentiation. 


Grade 

Purpose 

Type  of  Work 

I-VI 

General 
Educational 

a.  Expressional — largely 

b.  Technical — various  simple  media 

VII-IX 

General 
Educational 

a.  Drafting                 Largely     tech- 

nical,    but    ele- 

b.  Woodwork          mental.     May  be 

based     on     home 

c.  Metalwork           repair    needs    or 

o  n         industrial 

d.  Other  media       "types"  or  both. 

XXI 

Special 
Vocational 

Pupil  chooses  one  industrial,  as  car- 
pentry,   etc. 
Organized    for   instruction. 
Production  secondary. 

XII 

Special 
Vocational 

Pupil  continues  subject  of  XI. 
Organized  for  production. 
Instruction  secondary. 
Part-time  work,  if  possible. 

Fig.  4.     A   Form  of  Organization  of  Manual  Arts  for  general  educa- 
tional and  vocational  ends. 


The  terms  pre-vocational  or  pre-trade,  then,  would  apply  to 
a  type  of  training  in  the  elements  of  a  number  of  activities  or 
trades  so  that  the  pupil  might  have  a  basis  for  choice.  Here 
the  distinguishing  characteristic  is  the  fact  that  the  pupil 
realizes  that  he  is  headed  for  some  one  or  another  of  these 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  31 

life  activities  or  trades  and  must  make  his  choice  as  soon  as 
possible.  Fig.  3.,  represents  graphically  dominant  aims  for 
manual  arts  in  156  cities  of  the  United  States  as  expressed 
by  those  in  authority  in  these  cities.*  Observation  in  a  number 
of  these  cities  reporting  different  aims  shows  work  differing 
in  no  essential  one  from  the  other.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
these  expressions  of  dominant  aim  as  trade,  or  even  prevoca- 
tional,  as  shown  on  the  chart,  represent  hopes  and  expecta- 
tions based  upon  hopes  rather  than  justifications  based  upon 
investigation  cf  what  use  pupils  make  of  these  experiences 
after  leaving  school.  Only  as  the  majority  of  pupils  make 
use  of  their  school  training  in  specific  trades  in  their  future 
life's  work  are  we  justified  in  calling  such  school  work  trade 
training.  Only  as  such  school  activities  provide  a  definite 
basis  for  choice  of  future  life  work  for  a  majority  of  pupils 
are  we  justified  in  calling  the  work  pre-vocational. 

Expressional  *  (L  Central 

Manual  Arts  \2.  Incidental  or  illus- 

trative. 


Manual  Arts 


Technical  j  1.  Form — technic 

Manual  Arts 


* 


2.  Execution — skill 


Fig.  5. 

A  careful  investigation  of  what  use  public  school  graduates 
make  of  such  school  training  would  probably  show  a  larger 
number  of  justifications  of  such  work  on  the  ground  of  cul- 
ture and  discipline.  The  extremes  to  which  the  dogma  of 
discipline  led  educators  and  the  more  recent  exposure  of 
many  fallacies  justified  under  this  name  probably  account 
for  the  hesitation  manifest  in  owning  to  such  an  aim  as  domi- 
nant. Whatever  the  theory  or  hope,  the  fact  remains  that, 
whatever  values  lie  in  any  practice,  these  are  not  destroyed 

*Bulletin  No.  32,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  1916. 


22  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

by  wrong  classification  as  to  function  and  that  values  not 
present  cannot  be  made  so  thru  mere  classification. 

The  purpose  of  the  classifications  made  in  this  chapter  is 
to  point  out  significant  factors  making  for  certain  directions 
or  tendencies  rather  than  to  mark  off  sharp  lines  of  cleavage. 

Fig.  4  suggests  a  form  of  organization  equally  useful  to  the 
student  taking  the  work  for  appreciation  and  to  the  student 
taking  it  for  possible  usefulness  as  a  means  of  preparation  for 
livelihood.  It  is  recognized,  of  course,  that  most  boys  headed 
for  industry  cannot  complete  such  a  course  because  of  the 
element  of  time  and  money.  Such  pupils  will  have  to  have 
less  related  work  and  more  industrial  work  which  will  mean 
advancement  in  the  shop  experience  according  to  necessity 
rather  than  according  to  desirability. 

Whatever  these  special  adjustments  may  be,  the  fact  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of  that  industries  which  require  skilled 
workers,  which  provide  opportunities  for  advancement  above 
mere  machine  tending,  have  little  use  for  boys  under  18 
years,  the  age  at  which  they  would  complete  a  four  year  high 
school  course  as  outlined.  The  real  problem  for  solution  in 
the  training  of  skilled  workers  is  that  of  providing  a  way 
whereby  boys  whose  parents  are  poor  may  remain  in  school, 
or  may  have  training  on  the  job,  or  in  both  school  and  on  the 
job.  This  and  other  problems  of  organization  and  adminis- 
tration together  with  'justification  of  the  form  of  organiza- 
tion of  teaching  materials  in  Fig.  4  will  be  found  in  the 
author's  Organisation  and  Administration  of  Manual  and 
Industrial  Arts,  a  companion  text  in  preparation. 

2.  Technical  Manual  Arts.  For  purposes  of  easy  recall 
the  main  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  manual  arts  may 
be  visualized  as  in  Fig.  5. 

Form  may  be  loosely  defined  as  that  body  of  information 
and  understanding  of  the  best  ways  of  doing  any  given  thing, 
which  information  has  been   handed  down   from   generation 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION 33 

to  generation — or,  more  accurately  stated,  it  is  the  science 
underlying  the  art  or  practice  which  serves  to  increase  the 
effectiveness  of  physical  accomplishment  of  any  given  task. 
For  example,  thru  countless  generations  of  working  wood, 
men  have  evolved  a  method  or  order  of  procedure  in  what 
is  called  squaring-up  stock,  which  order  is  used  by  workers 
in  wood  in  every  civilized  country.  This  order  is  not  arbitrary 
or  haphazard,  altho  many  an  otherwise  intelligent  worker  in 
wood  cannot  state  the  underlying  reasons  for  this  order,  but 
is  based  upon  the  fact  that  this  particular  order  reduces  the 
chances  for  error  to  the  lowest  possible  number. 

This  reason  underlies  practically  every  other  operation  in 
working  wood.  A  worker  in  wood,  then,  is  said  to  possess 
good  form  and  technic  in  respect  to  squaring-up  stock  when 
he  knows  and  makes  use  of  this  particular  order.  Form  applies 
to  anything  one  may  be  able  to  do  to  better  execution.  The 
baseball  player  who  places  his  hands  upon  the  bat  in  a  cer- 
tain generally  prescribed  way  and  assumes  a  certain  position 
at  the  plate  is  said  to  have  good  form.  A  convenient  expres- 
sion for  the  idea  of  form  as  it  applies  to  technical  manual 
arts  is  found  in  the  phrase,  "conventional  order  of  procedure." 
Technic  is  form  in  use. 

Execution  has  to  do  with  muscular  control  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  an  act.  Skill  refers  to  the  effectiveness  with 
which  the  carrying  out  of  an  act  meets  the  demands  for  such 
action.  A  worker  in  wood  is  said  to  be  skillful  when,  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  conventional  order  of  procedure  in  squaring- 
up  the  stock,  he  has  added  an  ability  to  actually  square-up 
the  stock  with  accuracy  and  ease. 

Evidences  of  good  form  are  best  seen  when  utilized  in  exe- 
cution. For  this  reason  there  sometimes  arises  a  question  in 
the  mind  of  the  beginner  as  to  the  part  played  by  each.  This 
difference  may  be  seen  readily  in  the  case  of  any  individual 
who  is  called  upon  to  form  new  habits.    One  may  understand 


34 TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

fully,  for  example,  all  that  enters  into  the  riding  of  a  bicycle 
or  the  driving  of  an  automobile,  or  the  flying  of  an  aeroplane 
in  so  far  as  proper  form  is  concerned ;  skill  in  execution, 
however,  is  a  matter  of  improvement  in  muscular  adjustment 
coming  only  thru  trial  and  error.  Two  groups  of  boys  of 
supposedly  equal  capacity  and  experience  are  asked  to  square- 
up  a  given  number  of  pieces  of  stock.  The  governing  con- 
ditions are  made  such  that  the  only  difference  is,  that  one 
group  is  informed  and  has  mastered  mentally  the  conventional 
order  of  procedure,  the  correct .  form  in  squaring-up  stock 
such  as  has  been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation. 
The  other  group  is  not  so  informed.  The  value  of  teaching 
proper  form  is  seen  when  these  boys  have  been  set  to  work, 
also  the  limitations.  It  will  be  found  that  one  group  has 
secured  the  requisite  results  more  quickly  than  the  other.  It  will 
be  found  that  so  far  as  the  actual  acquiring  of  muscular 
adjustment  thru  trial  and  error  is  concerned  the  informed 
group  has  had  little  advantage  over  the  uninformed. 

In  case  of  each  group  trial  and  error  was  the  necessary 
prerequisite  for  improvement.  The  chief  source  of  advantage 
of  the  informed  group  over  the  uninformed  lay  in  the  fact 
that  the  order  of  procedure  they  were  taught  and  encouraged 
to  follow  reduced  the  chances  for  error  to  a  minimum.  The 
athletic  coach  is  of  service  mainly  because  he  knows  and 
teaches  and  encourages  his  students  to  make  use  of  good  form. 
The  shop  instructor  is  of  service  for  the  same  reason.  Exe- 
cution or  the  acquiring  of  skill  is  a  matter  in  which  the  pupil 
must  work  out  his  own  salvation,  guided,  of  course,  by  the 
knowledge  of  proper  form  or  technic.  Form  is  a  matter  of 
intelligence,  of  consciousness,  of  connections  between  thought 
and  thought.  A  consideration  of  matters  of  form  will  there- 
fore tend  to  delay  or  hold  off  execution.  Skill,  on  the  other 
hand,  becomes  effective  just  to  the  extent  movement  can  be 
freed  from  conscious  control  in  execution. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION 


35 


Technical  manual  arts  are  distinguished  from  other  forms 
of  manual  arts  chiefly  thru  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the 
teaching  of  proper  form  and  the  development  of  good  technic 
in  conventional  methods  of  procedure  as  developed  thru  race 
experience,  and  upon  skill  in  execution.    Teachers  of  technical 


Fig.  6.     Doll  House  Problem. 


manual  arts  will  do  well  to  remember  that  such  emphasis 
represents  but  one  aspect  of  educational  need  to  be  met  thru 
what  is  called  the  manual  arts.  They  will  do  well  to  remem- 
ber that  psychologically  there  is  little  value  in  emphasizing 
technic  and  skill  until  a  feeling  of  real  need  for  these  upon 
the  part  of  the  pupils  has  been  developed  thru  preliminary 
spontaneous  activities  of  a  similar  character  which  tend  to 
result  unsatisfactorily  after  awhile  because  of  their  not  being 


36  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


based  upon  a  knowledge  of  proper  form  and  a  fair  degree 
of  skill  in  execution.  They  should  remember  that  this  acquir- 
ing of  knowledge  of  conventional  methods  of  procedure,  or 
form,  and  the  development  of  skill  in  execution  are  not  ends 
in  themselves,  where  the  highest  good  of  the  individual  and 
society  is  sought.  They  are,  rather,  means  to  an  end,  namely, 
the  development  of  a  more  efficient  expression  than  that  to  be 
found  in  the  early  stages  of  spontaneous  activity — more  effi- 
cient because  of  being  based  upon  knowledge  of  proper 
method  of  procedure  and  a  degree  of  skill  sufficient  to  serve 
as  a  foundation  for  further  advancement.  Emphasis  upon 
technic  and  skill  is  the  middle  stage  of  Froebel's  (1)  spon- 
taneity, (2)  instruction,  (3)  creative  effort. 

3.  Expressional  Manual  Arts.  The  term  expressional 
manual  arts  is  usually  taken  to  mean  that  type  of  construc- 
tive activity  which  is  free  from  the  necessity  of  making  use 
of  conventional  methods  of  procedure  in  the  manipulation  of 
materials  or  of  developing  a  degree  of  skill  sufficient  to  have 
the  product  class  as  other  than  amateurish  and  crude  from 
the  standpoint  of  technic  and  skill.  Manual  arts  character- 
ized by  such  freedom  of  expression  may  be  subdivided  into 
central  on  the  one  hand  and  incidental  or  illustrative  on  the 
other  according  as  the  ideas  develop  or  grow  out  of  the 
activity  or  the  activity  out  of  the  idea. 

If,  for  example,  children  of  the  primary  grades  are  en- 
couraged to  engage  in  the  construction  or  furnishing  of  a 
doll  house,  Fig.  6,  and  out  of  this  activity  the  teacher  should 
cause  to  be  developed  lessons  in  language  or  number,  this 
would  class  as  central  expressional  manual  arts.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  certain  ideas  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  minds  of 
the  children  and  the  teacher  seeks  to  fix  these  thru  manual 
expression,  she  may  do  so  thru  what  is  known  as  incidental 
or  illustrative  manual  arts,  Fig.  7.  Such  expression  not  only 
assists   in  fixing  the  information   or  ideas  but  serves  as  a 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION 37 

means  of  clarifying  such  ideas,  or  at  least  of  showing  to  the 
pupil  and  teacher  a  need  for  further  consideration  of  the  in- 
formation supposed  to  have  been  mastered. 

There  are  those  who  refuse  to  consider  such  expressional 
handwork  as  a  part  of  the  manual  arts.  To  refuse  to  do  so 
is  to  neglect  an  opportunity  to  make  use  of,  and  to  assist  in 
orienting,  a  kind  of  work  which  is  of  most  vital  importance 
to  the  manual  arts  movement  as  a  whole.  Much  confusion 
has  arisen  because  of  a  failure  to  distinguish  clearly  the  aims 
and  characteristics  of  expressional  and  technical  manual  arts. 


Fig.  7.     Sand  Table  Problem. 

Let  it  be  said  in  the  beginning  that  those  advocates  of  ex- 
pressional manual  arts  who  strive  to  convince  us  that  expres- 
sional manual  arts  is  calculated  to  produce  skill  and  impart 
good  technic  as  a  sort  of  by-product  of  free  expression  in 
various  media  without  in  any  way  detracting  from  the  value 
of  the  expression  or  illustration,  are  confusing  the  issue. 
Since  the  purpose  of  expressional  and  illustrative  manual  arts 
is  primarily  mental,  intellectual,  emphasis  upon  the  idea  to  be 
expressed,  emphasis  upon  technic  and  skill  or  automatic  con- 
nections must  necessarily  tend  to  interfere  with  the  aim  of 
this  kind  of  work. 

For  example,  if  we  choose  to  have  a  class  construct  appa- 
ratus to  illustrate  the  earth's  movement  about  the  sun,  any 


38  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

rough  block  of  wood  may  serve  as  a  base  and  any  rough 
objects  of  a  spherical  form  serve  as  sun  and  earth,  a  piece 
of  wire  appropriately  bent  may  be  utilized  to  hold  the  bodies 
in  proper  position  relative  to  one  another  to  produce  the 
motion  required.  The  thing  may  be  hurriedly  made  and  be 
very  crude  in  matters  of  skill  in  execution  and  in  conventional 
methods  of  working  wood;  if  it  but  serves  to  illustrate  the 
thing  desired  it  has  served  its  purpose.  To  take  time  to 
teach  the  conventional  method  of  procedure  of  squaring-up 
stock  for  the  base  and  the  conventional  method  for  modeling 
a  sphere  would  be  to  interfere  with  the  free  expression  of  the 
idea,  which  is  the  essential  thing  here.  Or,  it  may  be  the 
making  of  a  hurried  blackboard  sketch  by  the  teacher  in  an 
attempt  to  convey  better  some  thought  or  idea.  To  take 
time  to  make  an  elaborate  drawing,  excellent  in  technic  and 
skillful  in  execution,  would  mean  probably  so  long  a  delay 
in  the  conveying  of  the  idea,  with  a  probable  centering  of 
attention  on  technic  and  execution,  that  the  essential  thing, 
the  idea  to  be  conveyed,  would  be  lost  sight  of.  Of  course, 
if  the  blackboard  drawing  is  one  to  be  used  for  purposes  of 
teaching  good  technic,  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  make  of 
it  the  best  of  its  kind. 

In  the  case  of  the  illustrative  drawing  it  is  well  to  make  use 
of  such  technic  and  skill  as  can  be  without  causing  a  serious 
sacrifice  upon  the  thought  side.  In  the  case  of  the  hurried 
illustrative  drawing  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  erase  the  same 
once  it  has  served  its  purpose,  lest  some  pupil  later  confuse 
its  aim  with  the  aim  of  a  technical  drawing  to  the  detriment 
of  pupil  ideals  as  to  a  technical  drawing  and  his  respect  for 
his  instructor's  ability  as  a  draughtsman. 

With  the  limited  time  usually  devoted  to  expressional  manual 
arts,  central  and  illustrative,  in  the  schools  of  today,  and  the 
fact  that  our  grade  teachers  of  the  regular  school,  by  whom 
this  work  is  to  be  given,  are  in  the  main  idea  minded  and 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  39 

idea  trained,  there  is  in  general  small  need  to  emphasize 
dangers  incident  to  expressional  manual  arts  work.  Such 
dangers  do  exist,  however,  and  it  may  be  well  to  mention 
the  more  common  that  the  enthusiast  for  this  type  of  work 
may  not  bring  his  subject  into  disrepute  thru  extreme  interest. 

First,  as  has  been  stated,  there  is  the  danger  of  failing  to 
recognize  that  the  aims  and  means  of  expressional  and  tech- 
nical manual  arts  conflict  and  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
accomplish  technical  ends  in  expressional  work  without  doing 
injustice  to  freedom  of  expression  or  else  failing  of  accom- 
plishment of  standards  of  achievement  inherent  in  results 
that  shall  class  as  technical. 

Second,  where  the  teacher  of  expressional  manual  arts 
recognizes  the  fact  that  freedom  of  expression  is  the  primary 
reason  for  the  existence  of  such  work,  there  is  sometimes  a 
failure  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  there  is  also  a  need  and  a 
place  for  that  other  type  of  experience  known  as  technical 
manual  arts  with  its  restrictions  upon  freedom  of  expression. 
Teachers  of  technical  manual  arts  are  equally  prone  to  forget 
that  their  type  of  work  is  not  the  only  type  which  may  legiti- 
mately find  a  place  in  the  field  of  educational  endeavor. 

Third,  there  is  the  danger  of  allowing  a  child  to  express 
himself  thru  crude  methods  of  expression  when  the  problem 
is  one  which  calls  for  what  we  have  designated  a  more  effi- 
cient expression — an  expression  based  upon  a  knowledge  of 
form  or  technic  and  a  skill  already  possessed  by  the  pupil 
in  such  degree  as  not  seriously  to  interfere  with  freedom  of 
expression.  For  example,  in  the  furnishing  of  a  doll  house 
in  the  primary  grade,  the  children  may  have  need  for  a  paper 
mat  of  simple  weave  and  color  design.  It  is  quite  likely  they 
will  have  been  taught  the  technic  of  such  weaving  and  color 
selection  in  their  technical  handwork.  The  teacher  will  do 
well  in  the  furnishing  of  the  house  to  insist  that  the  children 


40  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

make  use  of  this  technic  and  skill  in  the  making  of  the  mat 
for  the  house. 

Fourth,  teachers  of  illustrative  handwork  should  remember 
that  a  thing  which  is  perfectly  clear  in  the  mind  of  a  child 
needs  no  illustration  thru  construction — words  or  speech  will 
save  time  and  time  so  saved  may  be  utilized  for  other  pur- 
poses. If  it  is  participation  in  activity  that  is  wanted,  and 
no  problems  really  needing  illustration  or  clarification  are 
available,  the  time  may  well  be  spent  upon  technical  handwork. 

Fifth,  teachers  of  expressional  manual  arts  should  remem- 
ber that  central  expressional  manual  arts,  while  used  pri- 
marily as  an  activity  out  of  which  related  academic  work 
such  as  language  and  number  may  be  developed,  is  also  a 
preliminary  to  technical  manual  arts.  It  is  Froebel's  (1) 
spontaneity,  which  leads  to  and  prepares  the  way  for  (2)  in- 
struction, thru  creating  a  feeling  of  need. 

4.  Relation  of  Expressional  to  Technical  Manual  Arts. 
Expressional  and  technical  manual  arts  have  been  differen- 
tiated with  respect  to  stress  upon,  or  absence  of,  intellectual 
values.  It  is  said  that  expressional  manual  arts  is  strongly 
intellectual  while  technical  manual  arts  is  not.  This  state- 
ment needs  explanation.  There  are  two  kinds  of  intellectual 
activity:  (1)  a  type  wherein  the  individual  is  responsible 
for  initiating  and  working  out  means  to  an  end;  (2)  a  type 
wherein  the  individual  thinks  the  thoughts  of  another  or 
others  for  the  accomplishment  of  a  given  end.  If  reference 
is  had  to  this  first  type,  then  expressional  manual  arts  is 
superior. 

However,  sight  should  not  be  lost  of  the  fact  that  exercise 
of  initiative  in  the  planning  of  means  to  an  end  is  very  ineffi- 
cient in  accomplishing  results  until  it  is  based  upon  instruc- 
tion in  conventional  methods  of  doing  related  work  and  a 
fair  degree  of  skill.  If  this  latter  type  of  thinking  is  not 
so  high  as  the  first,  it  is  much  more  efficient  in  accomplishing 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  41 


predetermined  ends.  If  one  has  the  advantage  upon  the  side 
of  a  higher  type  of  intellectual  activity,  the  other  has  the 
advantage  upon  the  side  of  knowledge  of  race  experience 
and  skill. 

It  must  be  admitted,  of  course,  that  a  conflict  does  exist 
between  free  expression  and  instruction  in  conventional 
methods  of  procedure — one  cannot  tell  a  boy  how  to  make 
a  mortise-and-tenon  joint  and  at  the  same  time  have  him 
discover  how  it  is  to  be  made.  Likewise,  the  development  of 
great  skill  cannot  be  expected  at  the  time  a  student  is  men- 
tally active  in  an  effort  to  make  the  first  application  of 
instruction. 

Expressional  and  technical  manual  arts  have  been  differ- 
entiated by  the  statement  that  expressional  manual  arts  has 
no  subject-matter  of  its  own  but  is  merely  a  means  of  teach- 
ing other  subject-matter,  while  technical  manual  arts  is  an 
end  in  itself  and  is  possessed  of  subject-matter.  Strangely 
enough,  these  attributes  are,  by  others,  reversed — expressional 
manual  arts  is  said  to  have  subject-matter,  while  technical  man- 
ual arts  is  said  not  to  have  subject-matter  but  to  be  of  value 
as  a  means  or  method. 

These  conflicts  are  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  both 
expressional  and  technical  manual  arts  have  dual  signifi- 
cance. When  it  is  said  that  expressional  manual  arts  has 
subject-matter,  reference  is  had  to  that  type  of  expressional 
manual  arts  which  has  been  called  central.  When  expres- 
sional manual  arts  is  said  to  be  a  means,  reference  is  had 
to  illustrative  manual  arts.  Technical  manual  arts  utilized 
for  general  educational  purposes,  as  a  discipline,  is  valuable 
chiefly  as  a  method.  A  boy  taking  woodwork  who  never 
becomes  a  worker  in  wood  is  benefited  not  so  much  because 
he  has  mastered  the  subject-matter  of  woodwork  but  because 
he  has  acquired  certain  attitudes,  habits  of  mind  and  body 
which  assist  him  in  interpreting  related  experiences  in  later 


42  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

life.  Technical  manual  arts  for  the  boy  who  expects  to  fol- 
low that  particular  line  of  work  in  after  life,  technical  manual 
arts  for  vocational  ends,  is  valuable  for  subject-matter  as 
well  as  method;  skill  and  knowledge  of  conventional  methods 
of  procedure  here  are  ends  in  themselves. 

5.  Harmonization  of  Conflicting  Aims.  In  general,  con- 
flicts between  expressional  and  technical  forms  are  best  har- 
monized in  terms  of  Froebti's  (1)  spontaneity,  (2)  instruc- 
tion, (3)  creative  effort.  The  growth  of  consciousness,  we 
are  told,  is  like  the  clearing  of  a  fog — at  first  we  see  darkly, 
then,  one  by  one  we  are  able  to  distinguish  or  differentiate 
objects  and  to  classify.  Expressional  manual  arts  is  largely 
a  means  of  working  out  this  clarifying  process  in  the  mind 
of  the  child,  not  so  far  removed  from  that  "big,  blooming, 
buzzing  confusion,"  that  one-ness  of  the  individual  from 
which  he  works  out  his  differentiations  thru  movement,  ran- 
dom at  first  and  later  controlled.  In  performing  this  func- 
tion manual  arts  is  concerned  with  the  expression  of  ideas 
rather  than  with  processes.  /     * 

Of  no  less  importance,  altho  incidental,  is  the  fact  that 
such  spontaneous  or  free  activity  becomes  the  means  of 
developing  a  feeling  of  real  need  for  knowledge  of  better 
ways  of  accomplishing  results  in  the  manipulation  of  ma- 
terials. With  the  accomplishment  of  this,  the  pupil  is  ready 
for  the  second  of  Froebel's  steps.  Better  ways  of  accom- 
plishing results  are  to  be  secured  thru  instruction  and  prac- 
tice in  the  applications  of  conventional  methods  of  procedure 
developed  thru  race  experience. 

This  latter  constitutes  the  distinguishing  feature  of  tech- 
nical manual  arts.  Once  the  pupil  has  mastered  technic  and 
a  fair  degree  of  skill  in  the  particular  convention  under  con- 
sideration he  should  be  given  opportunity  to  enter  upon  step 
three,  creative  effort  based  upon  such  instruction.  This  last 
step  represents  the  highest  attainment  in  the  educational  pro- 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  43 

cess.  It  should  be  the  culmination  of  all  manual  arts  experi- 
ence. It  is  the  most  efficient  type  of  expression;  more  effi- 
cient than  spontaneous  expression  because  of  being  based 
upon  knowledge  of  proper  form  and  a  degree  of  skill  suffi- 
cient to  serve  as  a  foundation  for  future  advancement;  more 
efficient  than  the  second  stage,  instruction,  because  it  is  free, 
the  ideas  originating  in  the  mind  of  the  worker  and  not 
being  imposed  by  another  or  others.  Tho  spontaneity,  in- 
struction, and  creative  effort  are  mutually  exclusive  at  any 
one  time,  yet  by  close  alternation  and  development  the  advan- 
tages of  each  may  be  realized. 

It  will  serve  to  clarify  the  confusion  which  sometimes 
exists  as  to  the  relation  of  expressional  to  technical  manual 
arts  if  a  definite  time  for  technical  manual  arts  is  set  aside 
on  the  school  program.  At  such  times  technic  and  skill  may 
be  emphasized  and  both  teacher  and  pupil  brought  to  see 
that  here  the  aim  is  the  acquiring  of  a  knowledge  of  conven- 
tional method  and  of  skill — it  may  be  no  more  than  the  simple 
paper  weaving  of  the  first  grade.  Expressional  handwork 
may  be  given  during  the  time  of  the  class,  the  subject  mat- 
ter of  which  it  is  intended  to  develop  or  to  clarify  and  illus- 
trate— at  any  rate,  the  difference  in  aims  should  be  evident 
to  both  teacher  and  pupils  and  standards  set  accordingly. 

Expressional  handwork  will  find  its  largest  usefulness  in 
the  earlier  grades,  gradually  diminishing  in  importance  as 
the  children  grow  older  and  better  able  to  get  ideas  thru 
words.  Technical  manual  arts  will  find  itself  with  smaller 
time  needs  in  the  beginning  grades,  for  little  children  see 
little  need  for  technic  and  skill,  with  growing  importance  as 
age  increases. 

While  it  is  highly  desirable  that  aims  in  expressional  and 
technical  manual  arts  be  clearly  defined  and  differentiated  in 
the  minds  of  both  pupil  and  teacher,  it  should  be  recognized 
that  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  convenience  and  of  emphasis 


44  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


in  conflicting  aims.  It  is  desirable,  for  example,  that  book- 
lets, clay  animals,  paper  mats,  woven  rugs,  etc.,  made  in 
technical  manual  arts  periods,  where  proper  technic  and  form 
and  skill  in  execution  were  emphasized,  be  utilized  in  the 
working  out  of  expressional  manual  arts  problems,  such  as 
the  use  of  the  rugs  in  the  central  expressional  manual  arts 
problem  of  the  doll  house,  or  of  the  clay  animals  in  sandtable 
problems  in  illustrating  lessons  in  geography,  history,  or 
literature,  etc. 

Again,  in  any  illustrative  or  other  expressional  lesson, 
pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  such  technic  and 
skill  as  they  have  already  secured  in  the  technical  manual 
arts,  in  so  far  as  this  can  be  done  without  seriously  interfer- 
ing with  the  free  expression  of  the  lesson.  Out  of  such  cor- 
relations should  develop  eventually  a  type  of  expression 
which  we  have  called  a  more  efficient  expression — more  effi- 
cient because  of  its  being  based  upon  technic  and  skill  in 
related  matters.  For  example,  out  of  a  boy's  seventh  or  eighth 
grade  technical  shopwork  in  wood,  wherein  he  has  been  re- 
quired to  emphasize  technic  and  skill,  ought  to  come  an  ability 
to  express  his  personal  desires  for  the  execution  of  pieces  of 
woodwork,  such  as  furniture,  much  more  efficiently  than  if 
he  had  never  had  such  technical  experiences.  Then,  too,  if 
such  a  boy  has  been  given  at  least  a  few  opportunities  for 
the  carrying  out  of  such  original  pieces  of  work  as  his  mas- 
tery of  technic  and  skill  make  possible,  he  will  be  a  more 
valuable  type  of  citizen  than  one  who  has  never  been  encour- 
aged to  think  or  act  other  than  as  he  is  told. 

6.  Summary.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  manual 
arts  may  be  classified  and  differentiated  according  as  they 
stress  one  or  another  of  the  following  functions:  (1)  A 
means  of  expressing  ideas  without  restraint  due  to  consider- 
ations of  conventional  methods  of  procedure  and  skill.  (2)  A 
means  of  developing  certain  attitudes  of  mind  and  habits  of 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  45 

both  mind  and  body  in  some  one  or  more  industrial  lines, 
which  attitudes  and  habits  are  possessed  of  value  chiefly 
because  they  enable  the  individual  to  properly  evaluate  and 
appreciate  things  industrial  in  his  future  life  contacts.  (3)  A 
means  of  developing  technic  and  skill  in  some  one  or  more 
industrial  lines  as  ends  in  themselves,  useful  because  the 
individual  expects  to  follow  that  line  or  those  lines  after 
leaving  school. 

When  emphasis  is  placed  as  in  number  one  above,  this  is 
designated  expressional  manual  art;  when  stress  is  placed 
as  in  number  two,  it  is  designated  as  technical  manual  arts 
for  general  educational  purposes ;  when  the  stress  is  as  in 
number  three,  we  have  what  is  called  technical  manual  arts 
for  vocational  ends. 

Technical  manual  arts  may  be  divided  into  considerations 
of  form,  technic,  execution,  and  skill  in  execution.  Expres- 
sional manual  arts  may  be  considered  under  subdivisions 
known  as  central  and  incidental  or  illustrative. 

Technical  and  expressional  manual  arts  are  differentiated 
one  from  the  other  mainly  thru  the  variation  in  stress  or 
lack  of  stress  upon  form,  technic  and  skill  in  execution. 

In  spite  of  conflict  of  aims,  both  expressional  and  technical 
manual  arts  can  be  justified  and  harmonized  as  a  part  of  the 
educational  scheme ;  this  is  best  done  thru  Froebel's  ( 1 )  spon- 
taneity, (2)  instruction,  (3)  creative  effort.  Expressional 
manual  arts  is  most  concerned  with  number  one,  spontaneity ; 
technical  manual  arts  with  number  two,  instruction;  both  are 
preparatory  to  number  three,  creative  effort. 

Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:      Principles   of   Teaching,   Chapter   XIV,    review 

Chapter  XIII. 
Dobbs:     Primary  Handwork,  pp.  1-5,  24-26,  115-121. 
Dobbs:     Illustrative  Handwork,  Chapter  I. 
Judd :     Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,  Chapters  XI,  XII 
Griffith :  _  Correlated  Courses  in   Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  pp.  1-2,  7-11. 


46  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the'  term  expression? 

2.  What  is  form;  technic;  execution;  skill? 

3.  Define  form  and  skill  with  reference  to  consciousness. 

4.  To  what  extent  is  expressional  manual  arts  concerned  with 
skill?    Technical  manual  arts? 

5.  Enumerate  the  general  principles,  as  laid  down  by  Thorn- 
dike,  for  teaching  manual  arts. 

6.  Discuss  two  dangers  mentioned  by  Thorndike. 

7.  State  the  principles  given  by  Thorndike  in  securing  efficient 
execution  or  skill. 

8.  Illustrate  the  effect  of  delayed  capacities  upon  the  proper 
organization  of  manual  arts  teaching  materials. 

9.  What  bearing  would  Thorndike's  "Attention  and  Execu- 
tion" have  upon  early  Swedish  sloyd's  insistence  upon 
definite  foot  position  in  learning  to  plane?  (The  proper 
position  of  the  feet  is  painted  upon  the  floor  and  the  stu- 
dent is  asked  to  stand  upon  these  markings.)  Would  you 
ever  teach  positions? 

10.  Discuss  the  principle  of  self-criticism. 

11.  Can  you  harmonize  a  seeming  lack  of  agreement  as  to 
relative  emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  technic  and  skill  in  the 
readings  in  Primary  Handwork  and  Correlated  Courses? 

12.  Examine  and  try  to  classify  the  type  of  work  described  in 
each  of  the  following: 

Dobbs:     Illustrative  Handwork.. 

Buxton  and  Curran :     Paper  and  Cardboard  Construction. 
Griffith:    Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing. 

13.  Examine  back  numbers  of  Manual  Training  Magazine  and 
Industrial  Arts  Magazine  for  descriptions  of  different  kinds 
of  manual  arts  activities,  and  try  to  classify  them. 


CHAPTER    III 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

1.  Introduction.  The  term  industrial  arts  is  frequently 
used  to  designate  a  type  of  work  long  known  as  manual  arts 
or  manual  training.  As  used  in  this  text,  the  term  industrial 
arts  has  reference  to  that  type  of  educational  experience 
wherein  sufficient  relative  time  and  direction  are  given  that 
it  may  adequately  serve  the  needs  of  those  boys  who  have 
definitely  decided  to  enter  industry  upon  leaving  school,  or 
may  supplement  the  experience  of  those  already  at  work  in 
industry. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  this  discussion  to  enter  upon  any 
extended  effort  at  justification  of  industrial  arts  as  a  part  of 
education  or  to  explain  the  various  forms  of  organization  or 
administration  which  are  to  be  found.  These  are  fully  treated 
in  a  companion  volume  in  preparation.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
industrial  arts  finds  a  place  in  education  as  do  agriculture, 
commercial  subjects,  medicine,  law,  engineering,  etc.,  because 
society  has  need  for  trained  workers  in  industry  even  as  it 
has  in  these  other  lines  of  activity,  and  because  an  individual 
so  trained  makes  a  better  citizen  than  if  untrained.  Indus- 
trial arts,  with  its  early  specialization,  finds  a  place  in  elemen- 
tary education  because  of  the  fact  that  those  it  seeks  to  aid 
cannot  or  do  not  remain  in  school  thru  the  high  school  age, 
the  age  most  suited  for  serious  pursuit  of  vocational  train- 
ing.   Figs.  2  and  4. 

2.  Three  Types  of  Reactive  Need  in  Industrial  Arts  Edu- 
cation. Reactions  in  the  educational  process  come  about 
thru  (1)  random  movement  brought  about  thru  instinctive 
tendencies,  (2)  thru  simple  unconscious  imitation,  or  imita- 
tion  involving   little   original   thought   power,   and    (3)    thru 

47 


48  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


reflective  thinking  wherein  an  analysis  of  underlying  reasons 
is  an  ever  important  consideration. 

The  first  type  of  reaction  is  a  necessary  stage  in  every 
effort  at  habit  formation.  However,  it  is  an  expensive 
method  and  one  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
making  use  of  knowledge  obtained  thru  race  experience. 
There  will  always  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  random  effort 
without  needlessly  encouraging  its  kind.  One  may  have  all 
the  knowledge  necessary  about  learning  to  ride  a  bicycle  but, 
as  has  been  said,  it  is  only  by  repeated  trials  that  one  learns 
to  ride. 

The  second  type  of  reaction  depends  upon  a  kind  of  intel- 
lectual activity  which  is  a  necessary  part  to  the  learning  pro- 
cess but  which  has  limitations  when  depended  upon  exclu- 
sively. Learning  by  or  thru  mere  imitation  with  little  atten- 
tion to  analysis  and  reason  may  make  a  very  efficient  machine 
tender  or  automaton ;  it  cannot  make  for  race  progress.  Used 
as  a  means  and  not  as  an  end  this  type  of  thinking  provides 
a  valuable  aid  thru  which  to  raise  the  child  from  one  stage 
of  development  to  a  still  higher  stage.  For  example,  a  boy 
would  have  to  spend  much  time  to  discover  thru  random 
experimentation  all  that  goes  to  make  up  the  knowledge  and 
experience  of  a  first-class  carpenter.  Thru  exercise  of  the 
imitative  faculty  he  may  rather  quickly  be  brought  to  an 
efficient  stage  of  development  as  to  knowledge  of  what  the 
race  has  discovered  about  carpentry  and  as  to  mere  execution 
of  what  others  plan. 

The  third  type  of  reaction  is  the  highest — a  type  of  reac- 
tion based  upon  an  analysis  of  situation  and  a  reasoning  as 
to  cause  and  effect.  Here  the  subject-matter  and  method 
of  procedure  of  the  lower  type  are  an  essential  part,  but  the 
horizon  of  mere  practical  expediency  as  to  each  specific 
experience  is  broadened  into  one  of  understanding  thru  gen- 
eralized and   systematized  consideration  of  underlying  prin- 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  49 


ciples.  The  world  has  always  paid  highest  tribute  to  this  type 
of  reaction.  The  laborer  in  the  ditch  may  be,  and  is,  doing 
a  worthy  work  and  should  be  suitably  rewarded.  The  world 
has  never  paid  him  as  it  has  paid  the  engineer  who  planned 
the  project  of  which  digging  the  ditch  is  a  part,  or  the 
skilled  mechanic  on  the  job.    It  is  hardly  probable  it  ever  will. 

3.  Basis  for  Awards  in  Industry.  The  author  recently 
viewed  a  motion  picture  film  the  subject  of  which  was  "In 
Old  and  New  China."  In  old  China  he  saw  men  harnessed 
as  animals  to  great,  heavy  carts  loaded  with  heavy  merchan- 
dise. Thin,  gaunt  men  they  were,  with  little  clothing  on 
their  bodies  and  only  a  rag  to  protect  their  flesh  from  the 
heavy  ropes  at  which  they  strained  with  all  their  might,  a 
dozen  or  more  men  to  each  cart.  Soon  there  flashed  upon 
the  screen  a  scene  from  new  China,  among  other  things  a 
modern  motor  truck  with  liveried  driver  and  a  load  of  mer- 
chandise five  or  six  times  that  being  drawn  by  the  dozen 
men,  moving  with  apparently  no  human  effort.  Once  we 
have  analyzed  the  various  factors  involved  in  the  makeup 
of  these  two  scenes,  we  shall  have  determined  the  basis  for 
awards  in  industry. 

In  an  analysis  of  the  situation  in  the  illustration  above  we 
find  representatives  of  each  of  the  three  types  of  reaction 
enumerated  in  section  one.  We  find  the  common  laborer,  we 
find  the  skilled  laborer,  and,  by  inference,  we  find  the  intel- 
lectual, who  may  or  may  not  have  been  greatly  skilled  in 
matters  of  execution  in  the  realm  of  muscle,  the  man  who 
designed  or  invented  the  truck.  We  also  have,  by  inference, 
the  capitalist.  For  purposes  of  this  discussion  the  capitalist 
may  be  eliminated,  since  the  type  of  reaction  he  represents 
is  not  greatly  different  in  its  origin  from  that  represented  by 
the  inventor,  the  intellectual. 

From  this  analysis  we  find,  so  far  as  our  sympathies  are 
concerned,    the   human   animals   of    old    China   deserving   of 


50  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  highest  awards.  Awards,  however,  are  made  according 
to  economic  considerations  rather  than  ethical,  as  we  well 
know.  Further  analysis  will  show  that  awards  are  made 
according  to  the  educational  investment  the  individual  has 
made.  It  is  in  or  thru  the  learning  process  that  man  makes 
his  investment,  and  man  learns  practically  all  those  things 
which  place  him  above  the  brute  creation  thru  the  guidance 
of  intellect.  If,  for  example,  one  chooses  to  learn  nothing 
more  complex  than  tugging  with  might  and  main  at  a  great 
rope  fastened  to  a  heavy  load  of  merchandise,  one  may 
expect  to  find  competition  such  that  awards  for  service  are 
reduced  to  means  of  bare  existence.  If  he  chooses  to  become 
a  skilled  mechanician  and  motor  truck  driver,  he  must  expend 
time  and  energy  in  learning  those  things  necessary  for  effi- 
ciency in  this  kind  of  work  and  in  perfecting  muscular 
coordinations. 

Lest  some  one  has  hastened  to  the  conclusion  that  effi- 
ciency in  the  learning  process,  like  efficiency  in  habits  already 
acquired,  is  a  matter  of  feeling  alone  because  of  emphasis 
placed  upon  feeling  in  Chapter  1,  the  reader  is  reminded 
that  in  the  learning  process  highest  efficiency  or  skill  comes 
about  when  the  worker  has  been  instructed  in  the  best  form 
for  doing  his  particular  kind  of  work,  as  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation.  The  guiding  in  the  assimilation 
of  such  form  is  the  work  of  intellect.  The  truck  driver  had 
made  a  larger  initial  investment  educationally  than  had  the 
coolies.  He  had  become  skilled  in  driving  and  in  motor  truck 
mechanism,  if  he  did  it  most  effectively,  thru  intellectual 
investment  as  well  as  thru  feeling,  in  that  he  had  been 
instructed  in  the  things  the  race  had  found  out  about  motor 
truck  mechanism  and  driving.  His  awards  for  service  are 
proportionate  to  his  intelligence  and  his  skill. 

What  about  the  inventor;  why  does  he  secure  so  much 
greater   awards   than    either   truck;   driver    or   coolie  ?     Cer- 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  51 


tainly  not  because  he  is  necessarily  more  skilled  in  the  mat- 
ters of  muscular  coordination  in  execution.  In  all  probability 
he  had  a  model-maker  construct  the  model  which  he  submit- 
ted to  the  patent  office.  Highest  awards  are  given  those  who 
can  perfect  devices  which  will  save  time  and  energy  and 
make  for  comfort  and  convenience  for  the  race  in  ways  not 
before  known.  This  is  what  we  call  selective  thinking  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  the  second  type,  that  of  the  skilled 
mechanic,  wherein  thinking  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  association. 
So  valuable  or  productive  is  this  type  of  thinking,  that  the 
world  rewards  it  highest  even  tho  its  owner  may  be  inferior 
in  matters  of  skill  in  execution  in  materials. 

To  revert  to  our  illustration,  it  is  the  inventor  of  the  truck 
who  gets  the  highest  awards.  What  has  he  invested  educa- 
tionally? True,  some  inventors  are  born  with  a  type  of 
mind  which  naturally  puts  things  together  in  new  ways ;  more 
inventors  succeed  by  investing  hours  of  time  in  developing 
the  thing  which  afterward  brings  them  great  awards.  Cer- 
tain men  are  born  with  tendencies  toward  skill  so  that  mat- 
ters of  birth  may  be  neglected  for  purposes  of  evaluating  the 
three  types.  The  inventor  makes  his  investments  chiefly  in 
intelligence  of  a  certain  type;  it  is  this  type  which  is  the 
largest  factor  making  for  success  or  convenience  of  the  race 
in  guiding  execution.  In  the  final  analysis,  then,  investment 
thru  the  learning  process  may  be  considered  as  the  basis  for 
awards.  This  investment  may  be  in  the  form  of  increased 
intelligence  or  skill  or  both.  Intellectual  investment  in  turn 
may  be  of  two  kinds,  common  or  associative  and  selective. 

4.  Industrial  Education  Must  Provide  Opportunity  for 
Individual  Specialization  Along  Any  One  of  These  Three 
Types  of  Reaction.  Aristotelian  philosophy  proposed  a 
social  order  of  things  wherein  the  social  body  was  to  be 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  economic  perfection  or  efficiency 
thru  the  recognition  of  class  distinctions.     There  were  to  be 


52  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  intellectuals,  the  skilled  workers,  the  common  laborers. 
Rewards  were  to  be  distributed  according  to  class,  intellec- 
tuals first  and  laborers  last.  Members  of  the  classes  were  to 
be  determined  not  by  individual  preference  but  by  the  dictum 
of  certain  members  of  the  social  order  itself..  Democracy 
cannot  stand  sponsor  for  an  Aristotelian  philosophy  of  indus- 
trial education.  Democracy  is  based  upon  the  principle  of 
equal  rights  and  equal  opportunities  for  all.  This  being  the 
case,  opportunity  must  be  open  always  for  any  boy  to  be- 
come whatsoever  he  wishes,  whether  it  be  intellectual  or 
skilled  mechanic  or  laborer.  This  opportunity  for  individual 
freedom  of  choice  in  the  matter  of  future  occupation  is  the 
distinguishing  feature  of  a  democracy  from  an  autocracy. 

Since  a  democracy  demands  equal  opportunities  for  all,  and, 
since  the  intellectual  type  has  been  able  to  command  the  high- 
est awards,  education  in  democracies  has  not  infrequently 
drawn  the  conclusion  that  its  work  consists  solely  in  the 
training  of  its  young  for  this  type.  Education  even  in  a 
democracy  should  provide  for  all  three  types  of  reaction  men- 
tioned above.  There  should  be  extended  courses  to  develop 
mental  grasp  and  technical  skill,  with  emphasis  upon  indi- 
vidual welfare  commensurate  with  the  individual's  later  po- 
sition as  a  citizen  of  the  commonwealth.  There  should  be 
shorter  courses  so  directly  planned  and  pointed  toward  indus- 
try and  the  other  vocations,  and  taken  at  such  early  ages 
that  individual  welfare  seemingly  is  sunk  in  specific  indus- 
trial demands  for  a  machine  tender  produced  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  The  more  extended  courses  are  better,  of 
course,  as  a  general  proposition.  Limitations  as  to  time  and 
-noney  available  for  educational  purposes  will  largely  con- 
dition the  type  of  education  a  boy  will  be  able  to  secure. 
Mental  capacity  and  natural  fitness  will  enter  as  factors.  Just 
so  long  as  wealth  is  as  unevenly  distributed  as  it  is,  and  no 
greater  provisions  are  made  for  the  economically  unfortunate, 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  53 


education  will  be  doing  all  it  can  for  a  large  number  when, 
thru  such  vocational  experience  it  provides  instruction  in 
subject-matter  and  method  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 

Education  in  a  democracy  must  do  more  than  provide  a 
course  of  instruction  suited  to  those  who  expect  to  become 
members  of  the  director  class ;  it  must  also  provide  instruc- 
tion for  those  going  into  the  skilled  labor  class.  For  those 
who  are  unable  to  take  such  extended  courses,  it  must  provide 
a  type  which  will  better  their  condition  in  life,  small  tho  this 
may  be.  Much  of  this  must  be  offered  thru  part-time,  or 
evening  classes,  and  thru  training  on  the  job.  There  is  a 
place  for  every  type  of  reaction  in  the  world's  work :  reaction 
with  little  mental  effort,  work  wherein  the  employer  does  not 
desire  a  thinking  individual  and  where  a  boy  taught  to  think 
in  the  largest  sense  would  be  unhappy;  reaction  requiring 
somewhat  more  thought  power;  and  reaction  which  demands 
a  high  degree  of  intelligence.  Opportunities  educationall)) 
are  not  equal  when  only  that  type  of  education  is  offered 
which  the  well-to-do  and  the  intellectually  inclined  may  se- 
cure ;  opportunities  are  equal  when  the  various  types  are 
provided  for. 

5.  Fundamental  Principles  of  Teaching  Applicable  to 
Industrial  Arts.  What  we  shall  teach  is  determined  by 
social  and  economic  conditions.  This  being  the  case,  subject- 
matter  must  always  have  a  large  part  to  play  in  the  determi- 
nation of  educational  procedure.  When  it  comes  to  a  question 
of  how  we  shall  teach,  we  find  a  conditioning  factor  that 
modifies  the  emphasis  which  might  otherwise  be  placed  upon 
subject-matter.  How  we  shall  teach  is,  according  to  peda- 
gogical principles,  to  be  determined  by  child  nature.  This 
means  that  attention  must  be  paid  to  individual  needs  and 
desires.  These  factors,  educational  subject-matter  and  child 
nature,  tend  to  conflict;  it  is  the  teacher's  problem  to  balance 
them  as  best  he  can,  placing  emphasis  first  on  one  then  on 


54  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  other.  For  example,  psychologically,  education  must  grow- 
out  of  the  interests  and  desires  of  the  pupils.  If  subject- 
matter  is  of  such  nature  that  the  pupils'  desires  or  interests 
cannot  be  enlisted  within  a  reasonable  time,  then  the  process 
of  education  is  in  vain  for  those  pupils  no  matter  how  logi- 
cally the  subject-matter  may  be  organized  or  how  valuable  the 
experience  may  be  from  the  social-economic  point  of  view.  On 
the  other  hand,  desire  must  develop  into  efficient  reactions,  as 
judged  by  social-economic  standards,  just  as  soon  as  the 
developing  nature  of  the  pupils  will  permit.  This  means  a 
growing  emphasis  upon  subject-matter. 

While  the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  are  applicable 
to  industrial  arts  teaching,  practice  will  be  found  to  vary 
from  that  of  manual  arts  for  similarly  aged  pupils  in  matters 
of  time  allowance,  emphasis  upon  certain  methods  of  pro- 
cedure, allowance  for  individual  differences,  ability  to  exe- 
cute, etc.,  and  in  matters  of  relative  emphasis  to  be  placed 
upon  thought  provoking  content  and  skill  in  execution,  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  economic  necessity  forces  children  of 
certain  classes  to  interest  themselves  in  efficiency  in  adult 
activities  before  normal  development  would  dictate.  Normal 
growth  of  capacity  for  serious  thought  and  action  in  social 
economic  directions  is  as  diagrammed  in  Fig.  4.  According 
to  this,  serious  emphasis  upon  efficiency,  the  aim  of  industrial 
arts,  is  not  stressed  until  second,  third,  and  fourth  year  high 
school  age,  and  after  a  development  of  interest  in,  and  feeling 
of  need  for,  the  same  has  been  brought  about  thru  activities 
more  closely  refated  to  childish  interests  and  capacity. 

It  is  possible  to  develop  a  rather  high  degree  of  efficiency 
in  certain  kinds  of  industrial  work  requiring  comparatively 
narrow  skill  and  intelligence  before  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  year  high  school  age.*  It  is  possible  to  develop  an 
interest  in  the  acquiring  of  efficiency  where  the  boy  knows 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  55 


he  is  headed  toward  industry  and  efficiency  rather  than  appre- 
ciation. Boys  can  be  induced  to  take  interest  in  the  making 
of  large  lots  of  equipment  requiring  much  duplication  of  pro- 
cesses if  they  have  developed  a  consciousness  or  feeling  of 
need  for  efficiency  along  the  line  of  some  industrial  pursuit. 

Unless  this  feeling  of  need  can  be  developed  within  a 
reasonable  time,  industrial  education  will  be  as  profitless  edu- 
cationally as  is  any  other  type  of  education  similarly  affected. 
Knowledge  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil  of  the  large  place  to 
be  held  by  efficiency  and  the  increased  time  allotment  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  same  will  make  it  possible  for  the 
industrial  arts  student  to  approach  that  100  per  cent  efficiency, 
which  the  industrial  world  demands,  much  more  quickly  than 
it  can  be  done  thru  manual  arts  with  its  smaller  time  allow- 
ances and  its  interests  in  things  more  personal  or  individual 
and  less  economic.  Even  in  industrial  arts  training,  however, 
as  much  time  as  possible  should  be  allowed  for  the  growth 
of  skill  and  intelligence,  so  that  industrial  arts  teaching  is 
subject  in  this  as  in  all  other  respects  to  the  application  of 
principles  of  education  even  as  are  the  manual  arts. 

6.  Effect  of  Emphasizing  Efficiency  in  Execution,  or  Skill, 
in  Industrial  Arts  Education.  Efficiency  or  skill  in  execution 
can  be  accomplished  only  at  the  expense  of  attention  to  intel- 
ligence. The  truth  of  this  assertion  has  been  developed  in 
Chapter  1.  For  example,  a  quick  way  to  develop  efficiency 
in  the  framing  of  a  half -pitch  roof  in  carpentry  is  to  take  a 
framing  square  and  show  the  student  just  how  to  place  the 
square  on  the  material,  telling  him  just  what  numbers  to 
take  on  the  tongue  and  on  the  blade.  After  this  has  been 
done,  the  student  is  to  be  set  to  work  putting  this  instruction 
into  execution,  repeating  until  the  reaction  is  without  thought, 
as  it  were.  The  psychological  processes  here  are  represented 
by  paths  number  two  and  three  of  Fig  1.  This  example  rep- 
resents a  type  of  reaction  wherein  intellect  has  a  part,  tho 


56  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


not  a  very  large  part.  Its  part  consists  merely  in  recalling 
the  instruction  in  the  earlier  stages  of  application. 

A  quicker  means  of  developing  efficiency  in  execution,  and 
many  otherwise  good  carpenters  know  no  other,  consists 
in  the  foreman's  laying  out  the  patterns  for  the  various  kinds 
of  rafters  after  which  the  workmen  come  along  and,  using 
these  patterns,  lay  out  and  cut  the  rafters  needed.  This 
latter  type  involves  comparatively  no  thought  upon  the  part 
of  the  workmen  in  so  far  as  a  knowledge  of  roof  framing  is 
concerned;  it  may  well  class  as  Path  No.  1  of  Fig.  1. 

Continuing  the  illustration,  our  foreman  himself  as  a  rule 
has  so  neglected  intellect  in  order  to  attend  to  execution  that 
he  has  never  taken  time  from  execution  to  develop  intelligence 
about  the  principles  governing  roof  framing.  He  finds  it 
easier  to  take  the  limited  information  given  him,  which  infor- 
mation consisted  of  a  statement  of  the  rules  governing  the 
framing  of  rafters  for  the  roof  of  the  square  cornered  build- 
ing, and  then  attend  diligently  to  applying  this.  He  would 
be  non-plussed  if  required  to  frame  or  lay  out  rafters  for  a 
roof  the  frame  of  which  was  not  square.  Yet  the  fact  is, 
that  roof  framing  is  a  science  as  well  as  an  art ;  once  the 
principles  are  understood  any  kind  of  a  roof  can  be  framed. 

Industrial  arts  can  attend  to  the  immediate  development 
of  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  execution;  it  does  not  of 
necessity  have  to  confine  its  attention  to  this  alone.  Just 
as  in  the  accompanying  illustration  from  carpentry  there  was 
a  type  of  execution  involving  little  thought,  a  reaction  involv- 
ing more  thought,  and  a  reaction  involving  a  high  degree  of 
thinking,  so  in  any  industrial  arts  practice  we  may  have  the 
same  situations.  Quite  likely  society  will  continue  to  make 
progress  in  the  future  as  it  has  in  the  past  by  the  maintenance 
of  these  three  classes,  those  who  specialize  in  science,  the 
intellectuals  of  the  crafts;  those  who  balance  science  and 
practice,  the  skilled  craftsmen;  and  those  who  are  proficient 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  57 


in  execution  but  must  have  someone  of  the  intellectuals  do 
the  thinking  for  them,  lay  out  their  work.  The  fact  to  be 
remembered-  is,  that  we  may  have  efficiency  in  execution 
shortly  but  that  it  comes  about  thru  the  correspondingly 
early  elimination  of  intelligence  as  it  has  to  do  with  the 
operation  under  consideration.  Efficiency  may  be  delayed 
in  industrial  arts,  but  eventually  it  must  be  secured  if  the 
work  is  to  class  as  industrial  or  vocational.  It  may  take  the 
form  of  directing  others,  or  of  executing  what  others  direct, 
or  it  may  balance  these. 

7.  Industrial  Arts  Education  and  Cultural  Values.  What- 
ever the  value  or  lack  of  value  of  industrial  arts  as  a  means 
of  culture,  its  right  to  a  place  in  the  field  of  public  school 
education  must  be  conceded.  Social,  economic  and  other 
values  justify  industrial  arts  in  education.  However,  there 
has  been  no  small  amount  of  discussion  as  to  what  effect, 
culturally,  is  produced  by  industrial  arts  educational  methods. 

There  is  no  unanimity  of  opinion  as  to  what  culture  really 
is :  the  most  common  feeling  in  the  matter  seems  to  be  that 
culture,  in  common  language,  consists  in  one's  capacity  to 
appreciate  the  other  fellow's  point  of  view.  If  this  is  true, 
then  industrial  arts  is  cultural  just  to  the  extent  it  provides 
adequate  opportunity  for  breadth  of  experience  and  view. 
The  individual  trained  to  immediate  reaction  in  industrial 
lines  requiring  little  thought,  and  who  is  never  encouraged 
to  supplement  this  with  other  worth  while  experiences,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  cultured. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  individual  whose  education  and 
experience  has  consisted  solely  in  academic  training  along 
some  narrow  line  of  intellectual  activity  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  broadly  appreciative  of  the  point  of  view  of  that 
large  body  of  people  who  make  their  living  thru  working 
with  their  hands.  Possibly  the  boy  trained  to  efficiency  in 
an   industrial   line,    which   training   has   included   training   in 


58  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

related  English,  related  science,  hygiene,  citizenship,  indus- 
trial history,  etc.,  can  claim  to  be  possessed  of  as  much  culture 
as  can  one  who  has  spent  an  equal  amount  of  time  in  train- 
ing in  purely  academic  subject-matter  preparatory  to  college 
entrance  requirements. 

If  culture  refers  to  opportunity  to  do  selective  thinking, 
to  stress  intellect,  the  illustration  from  carpentry  should  make 
clear  that  industrial  arts  education  may  and  does  include  that 
class  we  have  called  intellectuals  as  well  as  the  class  which 
depends  upon  non-intellectual  reponses. 

8.  Dangers  to  be  Avoided.  First,  there  is  the  danger 
of  trying  to  justify  the  industrial  arts  thru  condemnation  of 
the  manual  arts.  A  more  reasonable  view  will  recognize  the 
legitimate  place  of  manual  arts  as  a  means  of  developing 
breadth  of  experience  and  appreciation,  and  as  a  basis  for 
future  industrial  arts  experience  should  the  student  decide 
to  enter  upon  an  industrial  pursuit  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 
With  the  limited  time  devoted  to  manual  arts,  90  to  180 
minutes  a  week  in  the  grades  and  not  over  80  minutes  a  day 
in  the  high  schools,  industrial  arts  will  not  expect  manual 
arts  to  be  able  to  develop  an  efficiency  equal  to  that  which 
can  be  developed  where  one-half  of  each  day  is  devoted  to 
industrial  shopwork.  It  will  recognize  that  students  with 
the  manual  arts  experience  with  its  limited  time,  tho  losers 
in  the  matter  of  industrial  efficiency,  are  gainers  in  other 
directions  which,  for  those  who  are  not  going  into  industry, 
may  be  of  more  value  than  increased  industrial  efficiency. 

A  second  danger  lies  in  the  confusion  not  uncommon  in 
the  minds  of  industrial  arts  advocates  wherein  they  fail  to 
differentiate  low  type  industrial  activity  from  higher  types. 
For  example,  one  may  sometimes  see  bright,  capable  boys 
with  time  and  money  to  prepare  for  better  things  spending 
days  and  weeks  at  developing  efficiency  in  a  type  of  produc- 
tion work  requiring  little  thought.     Sometimes  the  work  re- 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  59 


quires  little  skill  as  well  as  little  thought.  The  fact  that  an 
educational  situation  is  one  from  "real  life"  should  not  blind 
one  to  the  fact  that  all  real  life  activities  are  subject  to  differ- 
entiation into  varying  values  educationally  and  economically. 
A  student  who  has  time  and  means,  mental  capacity  and  phy- 
sical ability  to  enter  upon  industrial  activities  of  a  higher  type 
should  not  be  allowed,  let  alone  encouraged,  to  spend  large 
blocks  of  time  developing  efficiency  in  low  type  activities. 
If,  for  example,  a  boy  with  such  time  and  money  for  prepara- 
tion wants  to  follow  carpentry  as  a  life  activity,  he  should 
be  encouraged  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  training  which  will 
be  of  such  character  that  he  may  become  a  master  in  his 
craft  rather  than,  what  is  called  in  derision,  a  jack  carpenter, 
one  who  can  do  nothing  which  has  not  been  mentally  pre- 
digested  for  him  by  the  foreman. 

Conversely,  there  has  been  no  small  amount  of  confused 
thinking  brought  about  largely  thru  failure  to  differentiate 
values  placed  upon  certain  experiences  as  educational  means 
and  the  same  type  of  experiences  in  real  life.  The  fact  that 
certain  real  life  experiences  of  a  low  type  have  been  selected 
for  school  use  in  training  pupils  who  cannot,  because  of 
economic  or  other  reasons,  take  a  higher  type,  has  led  some 
educators  to  conclude  that  therefore  such  low  type  activities 
are  an  essential  part  of  every  individual's  training  and  after- 
life experience — in  other  words,  that  equality  of  opportunity 
necessitates  equality  of  classes  in  real  life  in  the  matter  of 
work  and  reward.  We  speak  of  the  dignity  of  common  labor 
in  our  efforts  to  justify  equality  of  opportunity.  This  is 
right,  but  equality  of  reward  is  another  matter. 

However  desirable  this  latter  may  be  from  the  standpoint 
of  ethics,  the  fact  remains  that  so  long  as  rewards  are  given 
in  a  competitive  market,  the  unthinking  laborer  cannot  hope 
to  fare  as  well  as  members  of  the  director  class  whose  places' 
are  won  by  the  few  who  have  added  to  a  fair  degree  of  skill 


60  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

and  understanding,  power  to  think  along  new  lines.  The 
fact  that  originality  and  initiative  are  so  productive  as  well 
as  so  rare  is  what  causes  the  world  to  regard  them  and  reward 
them  so  highly  when  they  manifest  themselves  in  time  or 
labor-saving  devices.  An  enthusiastic  advocate*  of  voca- 
tional education  of  large  salary  may  assert  that  he  is  willing 
to  "get  into  the  trench  and  do  his  share  of  the  world's  dirty 
work'' ;  in  fact,  neither  he  nor  any  other  man  of  equally  keen 
intellect  is  getting  into  the  trench.  The  world  is  not  asking 
him  to  do  this,  for  it  can  make  better  use  of  his  talents  as 
a  member  of  the  director  class,  as  evidenced  by  the  position 
and  salary  it  gives  him. 

The  problem  is  not  one  of  making  a  president  of  the  United 
States  of  every  boy;  neither  is  it  one  of  requiring  every  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  to  get  into  the  trench  and  do  his 
part  of  the  world's  dirty  work.  It  is  one  of  providing  oppor- 
tunity for  the  full  and  free  development  of  every  boy,  not 
neglecting  the  less  fortunate  who  must  occupy  the  humbler 
positions  in  life  as  the  world  classifies  them.  It  is  also  an 
ethical  problem  of  trying,  in  addition  to  providing  oppor- 
tunity for  training,  to  provide  means  whereby  the  economically 
unfortunate  may  secure  larger  training  than  they  otherwise 
could.  Not  every  boy  may  become  a  Henry  Ford  in  the  in- 
dustrial world.  It  is  to  be  hoped  a  new  day  is  dawning 
when,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Henry  Fords  of  industry,  com- 
merce, etc.,  will  recognize  the  fact  that  without  the  manual 
dexterity  of  the  men  in  their  factories  their  ingenuity  and 
creative  thinking  would  amount  to  but  little.  The  laborer 
of  low  degree,  and  even  the  skilled  laborer,  has  not  always 
received  his  just  share  in  the  distribution  of  profits  indus- 
trially.    The  director  class  too  often  has  violated  moral  obli- 


*Dean  E.  Davenport,  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Illinois, 
in  address  before  Parents  and  Teachers  Association,  Oak  Park,  111. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  61 


gations  in  taking  a  share  of  profits  which  has  left  the  com- 
mon worker  in  poverty. 

9.  Summary.  Industrial  arts,  then,  may  justify  types 
of  training  and  the  placing  of  emphasis  upon  connections 
making  for  skill  and  efficiency  without  apology.  It  will  not 
allow  itself  to  be  drawn  into  a  false  position  of  claiming  a 
low  type  is  a  high  type  when  it  is  not.  Neither  will  it  allow 
its  adversaries  to  class  all  industrial  arts  education  as  neces- 
sarily of  a  low  type.  Industrial  arts  has  its  types  which,  to 
say  the  least,  compare  favorably  with  types  of  training  in  other 
lines  in  matters  of  science,  intelligence,  culture.  While  effi- 
ciency in  execution  largely  distinguishes  industrial  arts  from 
manual  arts,  efficiency  may  be  delayed  for  purposes  of  devel- 
oping intelligence  in  the  work  under  consideration.  In  the 
final  analysis,  efficiency  must  be  present  if  the  experience  is 
to  class  as  vocational  industrial,  and  the  pupil  must  make 
use  of  such  experience  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 

Reference  Reading: 

Judd:     Psychology   of  High   School  Subjects,   Chapters   XII, 

XIII. 
Leavitt :     Examples  of  Industrial  Education. 
Bennett:     The  Manual  Arts,  Chapters  IV,  VII. 
Dewey:    Democracy  and  Education,  Chapters  XIX,  XXIII. 

Class  Discussion : 

1.  What  factor  is  emphasized  in  industrial  arts  which  makes 
possible  a  differentiation  from  manual  arts?  What  dif- 
ferences are  there  in  purpose? 

2.  Discuss  the  demands  for  industrial  education  as  enumerated 
by  Leavitt. 

3.  Enumerate  and  evaluate  each  of  the  three  types  of  reactive 
needs  commonly  recognized. 

4.  Distinguish  industrial  education  of  a  democracy  from  that 
of  an  autocracy. 

5.  Is^  industrial  education  subject  to  the  same  fundamental 
principles  of  teaching  as  are  the  manual  arts?  Why  then 
do  we  find  decided  variations  in  practice  in  the  matter  of 
interest,  in  subject  matter,  and  methods  of  procedure ? 

6.  Discuss  the  effect  upon  intellect  of  emphasizing  efficiency 
in  execution. 


62  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

7.  Is  culture  possible  in  industrial  arts  education? 

8.  Will  industrial  arts  education  bring  about  the  elimination 
of  class  distinctions  with  an  equality  of  reward?  Why  or 
why  not? 

9.  What  then,  is  industrial  arts  education  with  equality  of 
opportunity  expected  to  accomplish? 

10.  Discuss  some  of  the  dangers  incident  to  industrial  arts 
education. 

11.  Would  you  class  as  industrial  education  a  type  of  school 
experience  wherein  children  studied  about  industry  and 
made  replicas  of  certain  factors  as  best  they  might.  For 
example,  a  type  wherein -children  studied  about  the  steam 
engine,  making  steam  engines  out  of  materials  such  as  they 
could  work  conveniently.     Discuss. 

12.  Examine  the  work  of  a  number  of  schools,  as  described 
in  their  reports,  and  discuss  the  value  of  such  work  from 
the  standpoint  of  industrial  training. 


CHAPTER   IV 

INSTINCTS    AND    CAPACITIES 

1.  Instincts  and  Capacities.  Instincts  have  been  denned 
as  natural,  inborn  tendencies  toward  definite  actions  along 
lines  of  racial  development.  A  more  understandable  defini- 
tion, possibly,  may  be  obtained  by  referring  to  Fig.  1,  Path  1, 
in  the  understanding  of  which  we  may  say  with  Prof.  Thorn- 
dike  that  instincts  are  unlearned  connections.  Capacities  may 
be  defined  as  connections  possible  but  not  in  use.  The  kicking 
of  the  legs,  the  waving  about  of  the  arms,  the  crying  of  the 
newly  born  infant  are  examples  of  primary  instincts.  Ability 
to  think,  to  walk,  to  talk  are  capacities — connections  delayed 
in  the  case  of  the  infant  but  nevertheless  possible. 

The  significance  of  instinctive  or  unlearned  connections  is 
not  always  fully  appreciated  by  prospective  manual  and  in- 
dustrial arts  teachers.  Whether  such  teachers  will  be  happy 
or  unhappy  in  their  task  depends  in  no  small  degree  upon 
their  understanding  of  the  problem  of  the  place  of  instincts 
and  their  means  of  control  and  utilization.  Like  teachers  of 
other  subjects,  they  will  find  themselves  confronted  by  in- 
stincts functioning  so  strongly  that  to  properly  "evaluate  and 
utilize  them  for  useful  purposes  will  form  one  of  the  big 
problems  of  their  teaching  experience.  Adults  may  choose 
to  live  thru  Path  No.  2,  Fig.  1< — thru  reason  and  intellectual 
control  of  actions ;  children  begin  in,  and  only  slowly  grow  out 
of,  reactions  controlled  by  instincts,  connections  largely  lacking 
in  reason  and  intelligence,  Path  No.  1,  Fig.  1.  Instincts  in 
adult  man  may  have  been  so  subdued  and  placed  under  con- 
trol of  intellect  and  reason  that,  as  Bergson  says,  other  ani- 
mals and  insects  are  superior  to  man  in  the  effectiveness  of 
reactions  controlled  by  instinct  alone;  in  children  unlearned 

63 


64  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

connections  are  sufficiently  strong  that  at  all  times  the  teacher 
is  called  upon  to  exercise  self-control  lest  at  some  unforeseen 
moment  his  own  instinctive  tendencies  get  the  better  of  his 
judgment  and  reason.  Whether  a  teacher  is  successful  and 
happy  in  his  teaching  depends  upon  his  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  instinctive  tendencies  give  him  the  very  foundation, 
the  only  foundation  for  his  educational  structure;  that  the 
stronger  they  are  the  better,  provided  he  in  turn  has  the 
strength  to  properly  control  and  guide  them  into  useful  habits 
of  behavior. 

"Every  acquired  reaction,"  James  says,  "is,  as  a  rule,  either 
a  complication  grafted  upon  a  native  reaction,  or  a  substi- 
tute for  a  native  reaction,  which  the  same  object  originally 
tended  to  provoke.  The  teacher's  art  consists  in  bringing 
about  the  substitution  or  complication,  and  success  in  the 
art  presupposes  a  sympathetic  acquaintance  with  the  reactive 
tendencies  natively  there."  Attention,  then,  is  paid  to  instincts 
not  as  ends  in  themselves  but  as  means  whereby  we  may  en- 
graft other  and  more  remote  forms  of  reaction — reactions 
which  racial  experience  has  proven  helpful  to  the  individual 
or  to  society' or  both  in  enabling  the  individual  or  society  the 
better  to  meet  environment. 

2.  The  Law  of  Association  as  it  applies  to  the  Utiliza- 
tion of  Instincts.  Psychologists  have  given  us  what  they 
have  chosen  to  call  a  Law  of  Association  which  is  so  helpful 
In  the  interpretation  of  the  teaching  problem,  not  only  as  it 
applies  to  the  utilization  of  instincts  but  to  all  other  connec- 
tions, that  it  should  be  memorized  for  instant  recall.  It  is  not 
a  law,  as  to  the  certainty  with  which  the  result  can  be  pre- 
dicted, as  are  the  laws  of  physics  and  chemistry,  because  the 
limiting  conditions  are  not  so  readily  determined  at  all  times. 
It  is  enough  of  a  law  to  be  most  helpful  in  understanding  and 
setting  the  teaching  problem.  The  Law :  The  likelihood 
that  any  thought  or  act  will  follow  another  thought  or  act 


INSTINCTS  AND  CAPACITIES 65 

is  in  proportion  to  the  frequency,  the  recency,  the  intensity, 
and  the  resulting  satisfaction  of  previous  connections,  other 
things  being  equal. 

The  significance  of  this  law  when  applied  to  the  engrafting 
of  remote  useful  reactions  upon  instincts  is  simply  that,  if 
certain  remote  forms  are  wanted,  they  must  be  connected 
with  original,  unlearned  or  instinctive  reaction  often;  with 
not  too  much  time  allowed  to  elapse  between  their  connec- 
tion and  the  present ;  with  a  vitalness  of  connection  that  tends 
to  burn  itself  in;  and,  withal,  a  feeling  of  zest  or  pleasure. 
Not  all  of  these  factors  may  be  present  at  any  one  time,  but 
the  chance  for  future  like  connections  will  be  increased  just 
in  proportion  as  they  are  present  and  strong.  "Other  things 
being  equal"  is  simply  another  way  of  saying  that  the  con- 
ditions, in  general,  must  be  similar  if  the  reaction  is  to  be 
certain  as  to  similarity  to  previous  reaction.  If  one  is  tired 
or  worried  things  may  not  be  equal  were  the  connections  pre- 
viously made  when  fatigue  was  not  a  conditioning  factor,  etc. 

It  must  have  been  noted  that  this  law  presupposes  previous 
connection.  Occasionally  a  student  will  ask  how  the  first 
or  original  connections  are  made.  This  is  a  fair  question, 
tho  the  answer  has  been  given.  Original  connections  are 
native,  unlearned.  The  order  is :  first,  random  movement  or 
spontaneity,  tken  comes  the  opportunity  for  engrafting  or 
the  making  of  learned  connections  as  distinguished  from  un- 
learned. The  question  is  not  only  a  fair  one  but  one  that 
serves  well  to  emphasize  the  absolute  dependence  of  all 
remote  forms  of  reaction  upon  immediate  or  instinctive  forms 
at  some  time  or  another. 

3.  Instincts  Need  Control.  Philosophers  in  times  past 
have  taken  two  widely  divergent  views  as  to  the  moral  na- 
ture of  instincts.  There  are  those  who  thought  children  were 
by  nature  bad  and  that  it  was  the  part  of  education  to  make 
them  good  by  thwarting  native  tendencies.    There  were  those 


66  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


who  believed  and  taught  that  children  were  by  nature  wholly- 
good  and  that  education  consisted  in  letting  the  unlearned 
connections  find  expression  without  hindrance. 

This  latter  view  was  that  of  Rousseau  as  expressed  in  his 
earlier  writings;  the  former  view  was  that  of  the  churchmen 
and  schoolmen  who  preceded  Rousseau.  Philosophers,  to- 
day, are  generally  agreed  that  children  are  by  nature  neither 
wholly  bad  nor  wholly  good  but  are  to  a  large  extent  influ- 
enced for  both  good  and  evil  by  their  ancestry.  Mental 
activity,  for  example,  may  be  utilized  to  think  out  the  solu- 
tion of  a  problem  of  social  helpfulness,  or  it  may  be  used 
to  think  up  some  new  way  to  torment  teacher  or  fellow  pupil. 
Physical  activity  may  be  directed  to  the  work  of  squaring-up 
stock  for  a  given  useful  project  and  thereby  give  to  the 
worker  certain  habits  of  mind  and  body  useful  in  enabling 
him  to  make  a  sled  he  wants  sufficiently  well  to  withstand  the 
rough  usage  to  which  boys  subject  sleds,  or  it  may  be  directed 
toward  mischievous  ends,  such  as  cutting  desks,  breaking  tools, 
etc.  Ownership  may  be  utilized  to  motivate  the  acquiring  of 
good  technic  or  it  may  find  expression  in  common  theft,  etc., 
etc. 

4.  Means  Used  to  Control  Connections  between  Instinc- 
tive and  More  Remote  Connections.  Of  the  means  used  to 
control  instinctive  connections  or  connections  between 
instinctive  reactions  and  reactions  more  remote,  the  follow- 
ing are  common : 

1.  Guidance  or  substitution, 

2.  Neglect  or  disuse, 

3.  Inhibition  or  punishment. 

Among  other  instincts  are  those  of  curiosity,  physical  ac- 
tivity, ownership,  sociability,  emulation,  fighting,  independence, 
kindness,  mastery,  manipulation,  mental  activity.  Let  us  illus- 
trate means  of  control  in  two  of  these  instincts:  curiosity 
and  manipulation.    Any  shop  teacher  knows  that  the  first  day 


INSTINCTS  AND  CAPACITIES  67 


boys  enter  shop  for  the  first  time,  if  they  are  just  natural 
they  will  open  and  slam  vises,  handle  tools,  and  in  general 
investigate  every  thing  that  catches  eye,  or  ear,  or  hand. 
The  noise  is  deafening  and  tools  as  well  as  the  hands  of  the 
pupils  are  likely  to  be  damaged. 

Are  curiosity  and  manipulation  here  undesirable  traits  of 
character  or  possession  ?  The  novice  might  say  that  they  are ; 
the  wise  teacher,  however,  sees  in  such  actions  the  manifesta- 
tion of  instincts  of  such  strength  and  direction  that  he  imme- 
diately plans  to  utilize  them  for  ends  other  than  mere  noise 
and  manipulation.  He  does  not  so  much  regret  their  appear- 
ance, for  he  has  plans  for  changing  their  direction  toward 
useful  ends;  he  may  wish  certain  connections  making  for 
restraint,  formed  in  the  academic  school  room,  had  partially 
carried  over  in  a  manifestation  of  greater  respect  for  tools 
and  materials  of  the  shop.  He  knows,  had  there  been  no 
curiosity  upon  the  part  of  the  incoming  class,  that  the  teach- 
er's problem  would  have  been  a  most  difficult  one.  It  might 
of  course  have  been  present  without  manifesting  itself  in 
such  noisy  and  immediate  manipulation.  Sticks  make  poor 
performers,  whether  they  be  of  wood  or  of  flesh. 

To  illustrate  the  application  of  the  various  means  of  con- 
trol enumerated  above,  let  us  revert  to  the  example  of  the 
preceding  paragraph.  When  the  boys  rush  in  at  the  begin- 
ning of  their  first  shop  experience  they  may  be  kept  from 
breaking  tools,  slamming  vises,  and  taking  chances  of  injur- 
ing themselves,  first,  by  arranging  the  situation  so  that  neg- 
lect or  disuse  shall  obtain.  This  may  be  done  by  not  placing 
the  tools  upon  the  benches  until  pupils  have  assembled  and 
had  instruction  as  to  behavior  desired.  Vises  may  be  fastened 
so  that  they  cannot  be  slammed. 

Second,  the  teacher  may  prevent  their  handling  tools  and 
vises  by  inhibition  or  punishment.  This  may  be  done  by 
meeting  the  boys  at  the  door  and  telling  them  before  they 


68  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


enter  the  room  that  they  are  not  to  handle  tools  or  vises.  In 
any  well  organized  school  such  instruction  carries  the  impli- 
cation of  punishment  of  one  kind  or  another  to  come  in  case  of 
disobedience. 

Third,  mere  manipulation  and  unnecessary  noise  may  be 
prevented  by  guidance  or  substitution.  Guidance  or  substitu- 
tion in  this  case  may  consist  in  providing  other  directions  for 
exercise  of  curiosity  and  manipulation.  One  teacher,  who  has 
to  teach  grammar  school  mechanical  drawing  on  the  woodshop 
benches,  prefers  to  leave  all  wood  tools  off  the  benches  while 
the  twelve  lessons  in  drawing  are  being  given.  This  is  making 
use  of  neglect  or  disuse  in  so  far  as  opportunity  to  exercise 
curiosity  and  manipulation  on  wood  tools  is  concerned.  Hav- 
ing taught  respect  for  tools  and  equipment  thru  mechanical 
drawing,  which  has  habits  more  closely  allied  to  habits  already 
formed  in  the  regular  schoolroom  in  matters  of  restraint, 
he  can  then  connect  his  desired  shop  attitudes  or  habits,  with 
their  greater  freedom  of  action,  to  the  drawing  habits  with 
less  need  for  dependence  upon  mere  authority  and  fear  of 
punishment. 

Where  shopwork  is  not  made  to  wait  upon  mechanical 
drawing,  probably  as  easy  a  way  as  any,  where  the  teacher 
has  the  confidence  of  the  pupils  thru  reputation  (pupils  usually 
have  a  teacher's  measure  before  ever  they  enter  his  classes 
thru  acquaintance  with  pupils  who  have  been  in  his  classes) 
is  to  call  the  class  to  order  as  soon  as  they  have  entered  the 
shop  and  give  instructions  as  to  conduct.  Some  very  good 
teachers  prefer  to  let  the  pupils  enter  the  room  unhindered, 
handle  the  tools  and  slam  the  vises,  calmly  waiting  the  tap 
of  the  beginning  bell  when  they  proceed  to  set  the  house  in 
order  by  a  combination,  as  it  were,  of  several  of  the  means 
mentioned  above. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  certain  of  the  means  mentioned 
above  are  more  desirable  than  others.    In  order  of  desirability 


INSTINCTS  AND  CAPACITIES  69 


substitution  or  guidance  comes  first.  Keep  a  child  busy  and 
he  will  cause  little  trouble  thru  the  manifestation  of  unde- 
sirable tendencies.  Keep  him  busy  upon  useful  or  well-directed 
activity  and  he  not  only  causes  little  trouble  but  is  actively 
engaged  in  the  educative  process.  Neglect  or  disuse  is  second 
as  a  desirable  means.  It  is  negative,  as  it  were,  in  that  it  fails 
to  make  use  of  the  driving  force  of  the  instinct  it  seeks  to 
overcome  by  neglect.  Neglect  was  suggested  in  the  illustration 
above  of  the  drawing  teacher,  in  that  tools  were  not  placed 
upon  the  benches.  With  reference  to  learning  about  wood 
tools  thru  the  exercise  of  curiosity,  there  was  a  loss.  In  this 
case,  of  course,  there  was  a  gain  thru  directing  curiosity  and 
manipulative  tendencies  toward  mechanical  drawing  tools  and 
processes.  Since  the  woodworking  tools  were  to  be  intro- 
duced later  the  loss  mentioned  was  one  of  time  only. 

Inhibition  and  punishment  (punishment  of  any  kind,  such 
as  removal  of  privileges  as  well  as  corporal  punishment)  should 
be  used  as  a  last  resort,  in  general.  Appeal  to  au- 
thority (that  is  what  inhibition  and  punishment  amount 
to)  may  be  maintained  successfully  for  short  and  infrequent 
intervals,  such,  for  example,  as  the  shop  teacher's  telling  the 
entering  class  to  leave  the  tools  and  vises  alone,  that  they 
would  be  given  opportunity  to  learn  all  about  them  and  manip- 
ulate them  in  time.  Inhibition  and  punishment  are  costly 
and  uncertain  means  for  they  violate  resulting  satisfaction, 
the  most  important  factor  in  the  working  of  the  law  of  associa- 
tion. To  violate  resulting  satisfaction  means  that  greater  ap- 
peal must  be  made  to  frequency  and  other  operating  factors 
in  the  law  of  association  to  compensate  for  this  loss.  The 
excessive  strength  of  the  factor  of  resulting  satisfaction  is 
such  that  very  many  repetitions  will  be  required  as  a  rule  to 
counteract  its  loss. 

For  example,  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  a 
child  will  secure  a  stronger  or  more  lasting  connection  thru 


70  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


doing  a  thing  once  when  it  is  connected  with  something  in- 
stinctively pleasant  than  thru  doing  the  same  thing  a 
dozen  times  when  the. thing  is  not  connected  with  something 
intrinsically  interesting  but  which  is  done  thru  fear  of  punish- 
ment of  one  kind  or  another.  Connections  made  thru  authority 
with  fear  of  punishment  as  the  incentive  rather  than  resulting 
satisfaction  are  uncertain,  for  the  moment  authority  is  re- 
moved the  chances  for  a  repeat  are  unfavorable. 

5.  Conflict  of  Aims  in  Utilizing  Instincts.  As  in  teach- 
ing other  subjects,  so  in  teaching  manual  and  industrial  arts 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  flagrant  violations  of  the  principles 
of  good  teaching,  as  indicated  in  the  law  of  association  applied 
to  instinctive  connections.  Frequently,  however,  such  viola- 
tions are  not  the  result  of  lack  of  knowledge  upon  the  part 
of  the  teacher  but  rather  the  result  of  the  necessity  for  having 
to  choose  between  conflicting  aims,  neither  solution  being 
possible  without  a  sacrifice.  For  example,  certain  teachers 
recommend  the  making  of  models  by  the  teacher  and  the 
placing  of  these  about  the  walls  of  the  shop  in  orderly  se- 
quence. The  aim  here  is  to  make  for  clearness  of  thinking 
upon  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

There  is  a  question,  however,  as  to  whether  the  gain  in 
clearness  of  thinking  thru  the  pupil's  being  able  to  see  the 
year's  work  at  a  glance  compensates  for  the  loss  of  interest 
thru  the  immediate  unfolding  of  the  work  of  the  year  and  the 
consequent  destruction  of  curiosity  as  to  what  comes  next,  an 
important  factor  in  keeping  the  pupil  keyed-up  to  the  work 
in  hand.  Before  the  work  of  any  teacher  is  criticised  or  con- 
demned for  violating  certain  factors  of  the  law  of  association 
as  it  has  to  do  with  the  utilization  of  instincts,  the  observer 
should  make  certain  the  violation  is  not  justifiable  thru  extra 
values  obtained  thru  emphasizing  other  conflicting  factors. 
Keeping  a  pupil  after  hours  as  a  punishment  for  not  making 
certain  connections  desired  in  school  hours  may  violate  the 


INSTINCTS  AND  CAPACITIES 71 

law  as  to  resulting  satisfaction  thru  connection  in  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  of  ideas  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  work  of  the 
school,  a  connection  not  to  be  desired. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  such  punishment  serves  to  make 
the  pupil  take  greater  satisfaction  in  making  the  proper  con- 
nections during  school  hours,  it  may  have  justified  itself.  At 
its  best,  of  course,  it  is  but  a  makeshift  justifiable  only  with 
the  few  who  are  not  subject  to  reasonable  teaching  situations. 
A  proper  setting  of  teaching  conditions  should  make  for  re- 
sulting satisfaction  upon  the  part  of  the  class  as  a  whole 
with  but  few  exceptions. 

6.  Effect  of  Delayed  Capacities.  The  teacher  of  manual 
or  industrial  arts  needs  but  to  recall  his  own  experiences  to  be 
made  aware  of  the  fact  that  various  capacities  mature  or 
become  available  gradually.  Unfortunately,  many  adults 
have  lost  the  ability  to  see  themselves  as  they  were  as  children 
at  various  stages  of  development.  That  teacher  of  manual 
arts  who  seeks  to  emphasize  extreme  accuracy  and  skill  in 
primary  grades  evidently  has  failed  to  recall  that  the  capacity 
to  appreciate  a  need  for  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  and  skill 
is  not  likely  to  manifest  itself  until  children  have  had  more 
experience  of  a  random  character.  Then,  too,  the  capacity 
to  execute  with  skill  is  not  present  with  small  children,  espe- 
cially the  capacity  to  execute  fine  movements.  The  teacher  of 
industrial  arts  who  seeks  to  make  mechanics  of  mere  children 
finds  this  a  difficult  problem.  Children  of  early  grammar 
grades  are  lacking  in  capacity  to  execute  in  materials,  to  use 
mechanical  judgment,  and  in  ability,  as  a  rule,  to  appreciate 
needs. 

If  the  teacher  must  arrange  his  work  so  that  pupils  are  not 
required  to  make  use  of  capacities  before  they  manifest  them- 
selves normally,  he  must  also  see  that  capacities  are  con- 
sidered when  they  do  manifest  themselves.  The  teacher  of 
manual  arts  who  is  so  interested  in  expressional  manual  arts 


72  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


that  he  or  she  overlooks  the  fact  that  there  comes  a  time 
when  children  become  interested  in,  feel  a  need  for,  and  are 
capable  of  executing  work  according  to  conventional  methods 
of  procedure, — such  a  teacher  is  pedagogically  as  inefficient  as 
the  one  who  forces  experiences  before  they  may  be  had  with 
economy  of  effort.  Again,  that  teacher  who  fails  to  so  plan 
his  work  that  pupils  may  have  opportunity  to  exercise  reason 
and  judgment  in  the  execution  of  original  work  because  he 
has  found  such  a  capacity  rather  weak  in  earlier  years,  is  not 
fully  appreciative  of  teaching  opportunities. 

Not  infrequently  there  will  be  a  conflict  of  instinct  and 
capacity.  The  desire  of  grammar  school  pupils  to  make  large 
and  intricately  constructed  pieces  of  funiture  is  an  example 
of  the  instinct  of  ownership  running  counter  to  capacity  to 
manipulate  tools  and  materials.  The  problem  here  is  one  of 
directing  the  instinct  of  ownership  toward  simpler  things  until 
capacity  to  execute  the  more  difficult  things  comes  to  pass. 

A  not  uncommon  question  for  debate  is  as  to  whether  chil- 
dren should  work  upon  projects  intended  for  home  use  or  on 
projects  intended  for  the  school.  One  offers  the  instinct  of 
ownership,  another  offers  the  group  or  social  instinct.  The 
problem  usually  resolves  itself  into  a  question  not  of  which 
is  better,  but  rather  which  must  take  precedence  because 
stronger.  There  are  certain  stages  in  development  when  the 
instinct  of  individual  ownership  is  stronger,  other  stages  when 
it  is  not  a  question  with  the  pupil  of  mine  alone  but  of  the 
family  and  home.  Pride  in  things  civic  comes  later,  and  often 
needs  just  a  little  forcing  to  make  it  appear  at  all  strongly. 
Good  teaching  will  recognize  each  of  these  instincts  as  legiti- 
mate means  of  motivating  work,  not  as  ends  in  themselves 
but  as  means  of  giving  to  the  pupil  experiences  of  value  at 
appropriate  periods  in  their  development  as  judged  by  society. 

7.  The  Teacher's  Problem.  This,  then,  is  the  teacher's 
problem :    to  take  what  he  finds  nature  and  nurture  have  pro- 


INSTINCTS  AND  CAPACITIES  73 


vided  his  pupils,  when  he  gets  them,  and  to  strive  to  engraft 
other  remote  forms  of  useful  habits  of  behavior,  as  he  has 
time,  and  as  the  natural  development  of  his  pupils  will  permit. 

8.  Summary.  Instincts  are  unlearned  connections  ;  capa- 
cities are  connections  possible  but  not  in  use.  Whether  a 
teacher  will  be  happy  in  his  task  depends,  in  no  small  degree, 
upon  his  understanding  of  the  place  of  instincts  and  the  means 
of  utilizing  them  for  useful  purposes.  Attention  is  paid  to 
instincts  not  as  ends  in  themselves  but  as  means  whereby 
we  may  engraft  other  and  more  remote  forms  of  reaction, 
forms  which  society  has  determined  are  good  for  the  individual 
in  preparing  him  to  become  a  member  of  its  body. 

The  law  of  association  applies  to  the  utilization  of  instincts 
for  educational  purposes.  If  we  want  a  pupil  to  take  interest 
in  a  remote  connection,  one  not  natively  interesting,  we  must 
make  connections  between  some  activity  natively  interesting 
and  the  remote  activity  with  frequency,  recency,  intensity. 
The  resulting  satisfaction  inherent  in  the  native  reaction  will 
tend  to  become  attached  to  the  remote  reaction. 

Instincts  need  control  for  they  are  not  always  sure  guides. 
Means  used  to  control  instincts  are  guidance  or  substitution, 
neglect  or  disuse,  inhibition  or  punishment,  enumerated  in  the 
order  of  desirability. 

Not  infrequently  the  teacher  in  his  attempts  to  utilize  in- 
stincts as  means  of  motivating  work  finds  that  the  utilization  of 
one  instinct  conflicts  with  that  of  another.  In  such  cases, 
all  that  can  be  done  is  to  weigh  the  resulting  values  one  against 
the  other  and  choose  the  one  giving  the  greater  returns. 

A  good  teacher  will  recognize  that  certain  capacities  are 
delayed  and  will  so  plan  his  work  that  abilities  shall  not  be 
called  upon  until  their  time  for  normal  appearance.  To  do 
otherwise,  is  to  demand  unnecessary  strain.  On  the  other 
hand,  work  should  be  so  planned  that  instincts  will  be  placed 
at  work  as  soon  as  capacity  has  matured;  to  do  otherwise  is 


74  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


to  neglect  valued  assistance.  In  the  conflict  between  instinct 
in  one  direction  and  lack  of  capacity  in  another,  the  teacher 
will  favor  the  lacking  capacity  by  directing  the  instinct  toward 
more  reasonable  reactions. 

The  teacher's  problem  is  one  of  taking  the  child  as  he  finds 
nature  and  nurture  have  prepared  him,  then  striving  to  en- 
graft upon  these  habits  other  useful  habits  of  behavior  such 
as  the  race  has  determined  are  good  for  the  child  in  enablmg 
him  the  better  to  meet  his  environment. 


Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike :     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapter  III. 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapters  III,  VII. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  Define  instinct.  Define  capacity.  What  has  education  to  do 
with  these? 

2.  Thorndike  mentions  the  following  instincts :  Mental  ac- 
tivity, curioctty,  physical  activity,  manipulation,  collecting, 
ownership,  sociability,  emulation,  kindness,  pugnacity,  mas- 
tery, independence,  defiance.    Illustrate. 

3.  If  instincts  are  not  to  be  neglected,  are  they  always  sure 
guides?     Illustrate. 

4.  Thorndike  mentions  the  following  capacities:  Impression, 
expression,  connection,  selection,  analysis.  Also  the  fol- 
lowing complexes :  Management  of  things,  of  men;  of  con- 
crete ideas,  of  abstract  ideas  and  symbols,  self  control, 
energy,  precision,  thoroness,  originality,  co-operation,  leader- 
ship, self-denial,  self-reliance,  refinement,  sympathy.  Illus- 
trate. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  self  activity?  What  is  meant  by  the 
expression  "directed  self-activity,  not  self-directed  activ- 
ity?"   What  part  has  the  teacher  to  play  in  each? 

6.  Are  you  agreed  that  "activities  of  neglect,  inhibition,  and 
guidance  are  even  more  important  than  activities  of  impul- 
sion"? Would  you  vary  your  answer  were  a  distinction  to 
be  made  between  elementary  education  and  advanced  col- 
lege? Are  you  agreed  "that  success  is  in  a  great  measure 
not  making  failures"? 

7.  State  the  means  used  to  control  instincts,  and  differentiate 
as  to  desirability. 


CHAPTER  V 

APPLICATION   OF  THE   PRINCIPLE   OF  APPERCEPTION   TO   MANUAL 
AND    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    TEACHING 

1.  Apperception.  Apperception,  Professor  James  tells 
us,  is  a  very  big  word  for  a  very  simple  fact.  As  one  writer 
states,  "It  means  simply  that  if  you  want  to  go  somewhere  you 
must  start  from  where  you  are."  It  is  the  process  of  assimilat- 
ing new  ideas  and  habits  by  relating  them  to  old  ideas  and 
habits. 

Simple  as  this  is  in  statement,  it  is  not  so  simple  when  we 
strive  to  apply  it.  The  teacher  of  design  who  gathers  up  all 
the  books  in  the  library  relating  to  a  problem  in  design  for 
fear  his  pupils  may  go  to  them  for  suggestions  evidently  does 
not  understand  its  meaning.  Rather,  that  teacher  understands 
it  who  keeps  in  a  filing  cabinet  mounted  prints  of  every  thing 
good  bearing  upon  that  particular  problem,  let  it  be  a  piece 
of  pottery,  a  piece  of  furniture,  or  anything  else,  and  encour- 
ages his  pupils  to  study  such  designs  before  making  an  attack. 
Design  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  combining  old  elements 
in  new  ways — even  the  Creator  had  the  elements  out  of  which 
to  create  worlds,  we  are  told.  There  is  danger  of  copying — ■ 
this  however,  is  less  where  pupils  are  properly  taught  than 
where  they  are  asked  to  make  bricks  without  straw,  as  it  were. 
There  must  be  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  design  elements  be- 
fore designs  can  be  made.  If  these  are  not  there  they  must 
be  got  there  thru  a  relating  of  new  ideas  to  present  ideas,  or 
new  feelings  to  present  feelings. 

"What  anyone  thinks,  or  feels  or  does  on  any  occasion  de- 
pends upon  what  he  has  thought  or  felt  or  done  in  the  past." 
If  a  boy,  operating  a  universal  saw  in  a  wood  shop,  should 
be  told  to  remove  the  guard,  he  would,  without  doubt,  act  at 
once  and  as  desired.    If  the  same  instruction  were  to  be  given 

75 


76  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


in  some  foreign  language,  he  would  probably  be  non-plussed. 
To  get  him  to  react  as  desired  it* would  be  necessary  to  begin 
with  ideas  that  were  known  to  him  and  to  connect  up  these 
new  sounds  with  those  ideas  before  appropriate  reaction  could 
be  secured. 

2.  The  Learning  Process.  Froebel,  long  ago,  gave  the 
following  order  which  is  recognized  today  as  a  complete  state- 
ment for  ideal  method:  (1)  spontaneity,  (2)  instruction, 
(3)  creative  effort.  Note  the  order.  Compare  this  order 
with  that  of  Path  No.  2,  Fig.  1. 

Not  only  is  Froebel's  order  characteristic  of  the  small  arc 
representing  any  one  stage  of  child  activity,  but  it  is  also 
applicable  to  that  larger  arc  covering  the  period  from  birth 
to  manhood.  Both  organization  and  method  of  manual  arts 
teaching  are  affected  by  these  facts.    Note  the  following : 

"1-6    Years — Period    of    spontaneity    characterized   by   excess   of 
feeling,  expressed  thru  motor." 
Implication — little  need  for  formal  school  instruction. 

"6-12  Years — Period  of  spontaneity  characterized  by  excess  of  feel- 
ing, expressed  thru  language,  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
spelling." 

Implication — manual  arts  in  the  main  will  be  used  as  a 
means  of  teaching  other  subjects — expressional  and  illustra- 
tive.   Technical  manual  arts  begins  but  is  minor. 

"12-18  Years,  Grades  VI,  thru  H.  S. — Period  of  knowledge,  scien- 
tific reasoning,  characterized  by  excess  of  effort,  expression 
thru  both  motor  and  language." 

Implication — emphasis  upon  technical  manual  arts,  a  study 
of  the  science  or  conventions  together  with  plenty  of  oppor- 
tunity for  application  in  shop. 

"18 — Period  of  will,  creative  effort  plus  interest;  expression  thru 
language  and  motor,  in  most  men  thru  motor." 
Implication — trade     training,     automatic     habit     formation, 
emrjhasis  uoon  skill. 

3.  The  Law  of  Association  Applicable  to  the  Learning 
Process.  The  law  of  association  indicates  clearly  the  prob- 
lem of  making  effective  the  process  of  connecting  up  new 
ideas  or  new  habits  with  old  ideas  or  habits.  Situations  must 
be  set  so  that  the  pupil  will  make  the  desired  connections  with 
frequency,  recency,  intensity,  and  with  resulting  satisfaction. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  APPERCEPTION J77 

If  we  want  a  boy  to  acquire  skill  in  the  making  of  a  mortise- 
and- tenon  joint,  for  example,  we  can  do  so  by  having  him 
make  a  number  of  joints  of  the  same  kind,  frequently.  This 
alone,  however,  may  not  be  sufficient;  if  he  sees  no  need  for 
such  activity,  frequency  may  be  more  than  offset  thru  lack  of 
resulting  satisfaction.  Let  him  make  his  duplication  in  the 
form  of  a  taboret  or  some  other  object  he  wants,  and  fre- 
quency combined  with  resulting  satisfaction,  and  probably  in- 
tensity, will  result  in  the  skill  desired  by  the  instructor. 

4.  Some  Seeming  Violations  of  the  Principle  of  Apper- 
ception. If  the  principle  of  apperception  means  anything, 
it  means  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  In  older  manual 
training  practice  this  was  taken  to  mean  that  a  series  of  joints, 
parts,  must  be  made  before  the  application,  whole,  could  be 
made.  Consequently  we  had  planing  exercises,  sawing  exer- 
cises, chiseling  exercises,  and  joints  galore  before  a  single 
application  could  be  made.  We  had  this  same  counterpart  in 
academic  practice — the  alphabet  with  various  sound  combina- 
tions used  to  be  taught  before  any  reading  would  be  allowed. 
Similarity  in  writing,  certain  abstract  and  detached  strokes 
had  to  be  mastered  before  any  letters  or  words  could  be 
written.  The  fallacy  of  all  such  practice  lies  in  the  assump- 
tion that  it  is  impossible  to  get  wholes  of  sufficient  simplicity 
that  they  may  be  taught  as  wholes  in  the  very  beginning.  Cer- 
tain wholes  in  shopwork  are  easier  to  construct  than  certain 
parts.  A  simple  one-piece  key-rack  is  much  easier  to  con- 
struct than  a  dovetail  joint,  a  part  of  a  table  or  cabinet.  The 
chief  weakness,  however,  lies  not  so  much  in  the  exercise  as 
an  exercise  as  in  the  fact  that  there  is  not  the  resulting  satisfac- 
tion that  is  carried  with  a  whole,  a  something  of  use,  and 
that  the  making  of  certain  parts  is  not  always,  nor  even  often, 
the  same  thing  as  making  these  parts  in  a  whole. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  exercises  are  not  always  necessary 
precursors  of  application,  there  are  too  many  supervisors  who 


78  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

have  a  notion  that  therefore,  they  are  never  permissible  or 
advisable.  To  be  sure,  we  should,  as  a  general  proposition, 
put  things  together  as  we  expect  to  have  them  put  together 
later.  For  example,  that  teacher  who  had  his  boys  square  up 
edges  and  ends  on  a  sleeve  board  for  the  sake  of  giving  addi- 
tional practice  in  squaring  up  stock,  when  these  edges  and 
ends  were  to  be  cut  off  in  making  the  curves,  need  hardly  be 
surprised  to  find  these  boys  going  thru  this  needless  operation 
when  later  they  are  called  upon  to  make  sleeve  boards — they 
were  taught  such  associations,  and  by  the  workings  of  the 
law  of  association,  will  tend  to  repeat  such  associations  un- 
less something  very  intense  has  been  done  to  break  such  con- 
nections. To  say  that  exercises  are  always  bad  is  hardly 
wise.  The  fact  that  attention  can  be  centered  upon  one  diffi- 
culty at  a  time,  and  that  both  time  and  valuable  material  are 
often  saved  by  the  preliminary  exercise,  makes  its  use  well 
worth  while,  once  the  pupil  has  had  enough  simpler  experience, 
simpler  wholes,  to  have  been  forced  to  a  feeling  of  need  for 
such  preliminary  exercises.  While  a  child  may  learn  to  read 
readily  by  means  of  the  word-sentence  method  there  comes  a 
time  when  the  alphabet  should  be  taught.  A  fourth  grade 
girl  could  not  locate  a  desired  word  in  the  dictionary  because 
she  had  never  been  taught  the  sequence  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  tho  she  could  read  beautifully. 

5.  Logical  Sequence.  While  the  aim  should  always  be 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  it  should  be  understood  that 
many  times  one  process  is  as  difficult  to  master  as  another, 
Whether,  for  example,  accurate  sawing  to  a  line  should  come 
before  accurate  planing  to  a  line  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of 
relative  difficultness — one  is  about  as  difficult  as  the  other; 
the  essential  thing  in  such  cases  is  to  so  plan  that  one  difficult 
thing  will  have  time  to  become  assimilated  before  another  is 
introduced.  In  such  cases  one  can  afford  to  be  liberal  as  to 
which  process  shall  be  taught  first.    When,  however,  it  becomes 


PRINCIPLE  OF  APPERCEPTION 79 

a  matter  of  free  sawing  parallel  to  a  line,  as  when  planing 
is  to  be  done  afterward,  there  is  no  question  but  that  such 
free  sawing  should  come  before  the  more  accurate  sawing 
to  a  line. 

Manual  training  and  industrial  arts  teachers  are  frequently 
confronted  today  with  the  demand  upon  the  part  of  superin- 
tendents that  they  conduct  their  work  upon  the  basis  of  project 


Fig.  8.    Cutting-off  Jig. 
Courtesy  of  E.  E.  MacNary,  Springfield,   Mass. 

or  problem,  or  job  rather  than  process  arrangement.  So  long 
as  freedom  of  choice  as  to  project  is  allowed,  it  is  possible 
to  maintain  orderly  arrangement  of  processes,  from  the  sim- 
ple to  the  complex,  without  violating  any  of  the  controlling 
factors  in  the  working  of  the  law  of  association  as  applied 
to  apperception,  or  to  the  learning  process.  Those  superin- 
tendents, however,  who  arbitrarily  select  projects  and  insist 
that  the  manual  training  or  industrial  arts  teacher  have  his 
boys  execute  the  same  forthwith,  are,  to  say  the  least,  not 
dealing  fairly  with  the  teaching  of  manual  or  industrial  arts. 
Manual  and  industrial  arts  teaching  is  governed  by  identically 
the  same  laws  as  govern  the  teaching  of  other  subjects.  It 
is  doubly  important  that  conditions  be  favorable  for  the  proper 


80 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


setting  of  the  teaching  problem  in  manual  and  industrial  arts 
for  manual  and  industrial  arts  deal  with  such  resisting  mate- 
rials that  violation  of  the  law  of  association  must  mean  defeat 
of  a  nature  that  cannot  be  concealed  from  those  who  know 
what  the  proper  results  should  have  been.     A  superintendent 

would  hardly  ask  a  beginning 
Latin  class  to  attempt  to  trans- 
late Virgil  or  Cicero,  yet  he  not 
infrequently  demands  that  a 
beginning  manual  training  or 
industrial  arts  class  build  pre- 
tentious pieces  of  apparatus  be- 
fore they  have  any  basis  in 
technical  understanding  or  well 
controlled  muscular  habits  for 
such  activities. 

The  discussion  of  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  is  based  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  work 
is  organized  to  develop  techni- 
cal insight  and  mechanical  skill 
of  hand.  It  is  possible  by 
means  of  jigs,  Figs.  8,  9  and 
10,  to  so  simplify  requirements 
for  skill  of  hand  and  technical 
understanding  that  mere  chil- 
dren can  be  got  to  produce 
quite  imposing  pieces  of  work. 
School  superintendents  not 
infrequently  confuse  educa- 
tional values  obtained  from 
this  type  of  work  with  those  of  that  type  intended  to 
develop  skill  of  hand.  The  use  of  jigs  is  legitimate  and  the 
experience  gained  has  value.     It  is,  however,  no  adequate 


Fig.  9.    End  View  of  Planing 
Jig.    Courtesy  of  E.  E.  Mac- 
Nary,  Springfield,  Mass. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  APPERCEPTION 81 

substitute  for  those  values  which  come  thru  handwork 
without  the  excessive  use  of  jigs.  The  relative  value  of  the 
two  types  of  training  has  been  touched  upon  in  the  chapter 
on  industrial  education. 


Fig.  10.     Boring  Jig.    Courtesy  of  E.  E.  MacNary,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Rewards,  as  has  been  said,  are  commensurate  with  educa- 
tional investment.  If  the  pupil  makes  a  hurried  investment 
in  skill  thru  the  use  of  jigs,  he  will  not  be  able  to  realize  upon 
this  investment  as  will  the  pupil  who  makes  the  more  expen- 
sive investment,  as  to  time  and  energy,  in  the  development 
of  skill  in  intricate  mental  and  muscular  coordinations.  A 
machine  tender  or  a  mechanic  of  a  mill  wherein  the  work 
requires  small  skill  thru  the  use  of  jigs  does  not  receive  a 
remuneration  equal  to  that  of  the  mechanic  on  the  job  wherein 


82  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

wide  skill  or  muscular  coordination  is  required.  This  latter 
skill  must,  of  course,  be  marketable.  Skill  for  skill's  sake  is 
of  small  value.  It  must  also  be  a  skill  not  capable  of  ready 
duplication  by  machine  processes.  Whether  the  work  is  pro- 
duction by  jigs  or  production  by  skill  of  hand,  attention  must 
be  paid  in  each  to  orderly  introduction  or  sequence  of  subject- 
matter.  Sequences  when  the  work  is  done  by  the  use  of  jigs 
should  not  be  confused  with  necessary  sequences  when  the 
work  is  to  be  done  thru  development  of  skill  of  hand  in  free 
manipulation  of  tools.  The  value  of  jigs  as  an  economic  factor 
in  production  is  not  to  be  questioned,  of  course ;  and  their  use 
in  the  school  course  for  purposes  of  attaining  certain  objectives, 
such  as  the  giving  of  information  about,  and  experience  in 
quantity  production,  must  be  recognized,  also,  their  use  as  a 
preliminary  to  attainments  of  skill  of  hand,  as  a  means  of 
setting  up  standards  and  feelings  for  proper  muscular  co-ordi- 
nations must  be  considered. 

6.  Drill  or  Frequency  as  an  Essential  Factor  in  Assimila- 
tion. Teachers  of  technical  work  in  the  grammar  grades 
are  prone  to  forget  that  frequency  is  an  important  element 
in  the  extent  to  which  a  new  connection  in  ideas  or  action 
will  become  assimilated.  This,  no  doubt,  is  due  to  the  excess 
of  motive  or  impulsion  upon  the  part  of  young  pupils — the 
intense  desire  to  be  undertaking  something  new.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  a  grade  school  boy  to  have  had  all  the 
fundamental  tool  operations  taught  him,  followed  by  such 
joints  as  dado,  cross-lap,  glue,  mortise-and-tenon,  etc.,  in  the 
making  of  large  pieces  of  furniture.  There  are  always  the 
exceptions,  of  course,  but  in  all  probability  not  fifty  per  cent 
of  a  class  having  but  two  and  one-half  hours  or  less  per  week 
will  have  had  sufficient  repetition,  arranged,  of  course,  to 
give  resulting  satisfaction,  to  have  mastered  such  joints  so 
that  the  high  school  teacher  can  presuppose  such  mastery  and 
plan  his  work  accordingly. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  APPERCEPTION 83 

7.  Summary.  Apperception  is  the  process  of  assimilat- 
ing new  ideas  and  new  habits  by  relating  them  to  old  ideas 
and  habits.  "What  one  thinks  or  feels  or  does  depends  upon 
what  one  has  thought  or  felt  or  done  in  the  past." 

Froebel  long  ago  gave  the  order  of  procedure  to  be  followed 
in  the  learning  process  which  order  is  recognized  today  as  a 
complete  statement  for  proper  method  where  time  is  available 
for  the  highest  development  of  the  individual:  (1)  spontaneity, 
(2)  instruction,  (3)  creative  effort.  This  order  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  large  arc  covering  the  period  from  birth  to 
manhood  as  well  as  the  smaller  arc  representing  any  one 
stage  of  development. 

The  law  of  association  applies  to  the  learning  process,  for 
assimilation  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  association — associa- 
tion of  new  ideas  with  old  or  new  habits  with  old. 

If  the  principle  of  apperception  means  anything,  it 
means  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  This  has  been  taken 
to  mean  that  abstract  exercises  must  always  precede  projects 
or  completed  wholes.  Experience  has  shown  that  children 
get  greater  satisfaction  thru  making  projects  than  thru  making 
exercises.  Elementary  manual  and  industrial  arts  should 
consist  of  project  work  rather  than  exercise.  This  can  be 
accomplished  without  violating  the  principle  of  apperception; 
it  is  perfectly  possible  to  have  projects  so  simple  that  they 
may  be  made  without  preliminary  exercises.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  difficulties  children  meet  in  dealing  with  simple 
projects  serve  to  cause  them  to  see  the  need  for  preliminary 
exercises  for  certain  advanced  project  work.  When  this  situa- 
tion obtains,  exercises  are  legitimate  and  pedagogically  proper. 

Application  of  the  principle  of  apperception  implies  atten- 
tion to  proper  sequence.  Project  sequence  instead  of  process 
sequence  may  serve  as  a  basis  of  organization  of  subject- 
matter  provided  choice  of  project  or  choice  of  time  for  intro- 
ducing any  required  project  in  the  course  is  left  to  the  teacher 


84  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  _ 

or  supervisor  of  the  shop  or  drafting  work.  When  this  is 
done  the  teacher  or  supervisor  may  preserve  necessary  se- 
quence so  that  the  principle  of  apperception  may  not  be  violated 
thru  having  to  introduce  the  children  to  intricate  processes 
before  they  have  built  up  any  adequate  basis  in  past  ex- 
perience for  assimilation.  Sequence,  where  jigs  are  employed 
should  not  be  confused  with  sequence  where  dependence  is 
placed  upon  skill  of  hand. 

Drill  is  an  essential  factor  in  assimilation.  Drill  is  the  fre- 
quency factor  mentioned  in  the  law  of  association.  In  all 
drill  it  should  be  remembered  that  frequency  so  arranged  as 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  is  very  much 
more  effective  than  drill  not  so  accompanied. 

Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapter  IV. 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapter  XIV. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  Define  apperception. 

2.  State  the  law  of  association. 

3.  From  observations  state  how  a  teacher  prepared  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  for  a  new  idea  which  he  desired  they  should 
acquire. 

4.  From  observations  state  how  a  teacher  prepared  the  bodies 
of  the  pupils  for  a  new  habit  in  muscular  coordination  in 
constructive  work. 

5.  What  suggestions  have  you  for  a  better  or  more  efficient 
presentation  of  the  problems  of  3  and  4? 

6.  Discuss  the  application  of  the  principle  of  apperception  to 
the  teaching  of  design. 

7.  "From  the  simple  to  the  complex."  How  do  you  explain 
the  fact  that  we  begin  with  wholes  rather  than  with  parts 
in  our  teaching.  For  example,  in  reading  we  teach  words 
and  sentences  before  we  teach  the  alphabet.  In  woodwork 
we  teach  pupils  to  make  bread-boards,  etc.,  rather  than 
abstract  planing  and  sawing  and  joint  exercises. 

8.  Discuss :  "To  proceed-  to  the  unknown  is  as  important  as 
from  the  known."  Make  an  application  to  some  manual 
arts  problem. 


CHAPTER  VI 

INTEREST   AND  ATTENTION 

1.  Interest  and  Attention  the  Indispensable  Basis  of 
Every  Method  of  Education.  The  place  of  interest  in  edu- 
cation has  caused  no  small  amount  of  debate  among  educators 
and  of  confusion  upon  the  part  of  the  young  teacher.  Most 
of  the  lack  of  agreement  has  come  about  thru  a  lack  of  agree- 
ment as  to  what  is  meant  by  the  term  interest.  For  the  sake 
of  clearness  we  may  assume  that  interest  and  attention  are 
one  and  the  same  thing ;  that  we  are  in  this  sense  always  inter- 
ested in  what  we  attend  to.  The  boy  who  cuts  the  grass 
when  he  doesn't  want  to  do  so,  because  he  knows  a  whipping 
will  follow  his  neglect,  is  interested  in  what  he  is  doing — 
interested  to  the  extent  that  resulting  satisfaction  is  greater 
in  doing  the  unpleasant  task  than  it  would  be  in  taking  the 
whipping.  The  distinction  we  debate  about,  then,  is  not  one 
of  interest  or  lack  of  interest,  but  interest  or  attention  with 
or  without  a  feeling  of  intrinsic  desire  or  zest.  If  we  attend 
to  a  thing  we  must  be  interested  in  that  thing. 

Now  mental  assimilation  is  a  matter  of  consciousness. 
Consciousness  and  attention  are  one.  So  long  as  we  are 
conscious  we  are  attending  to  some  one  thing  or  another. 
The  problem  of  education  is  the  problem  of  getting  the  stu- 
dent to  attend,  to  take  interest  in  the  thing  th?.t  society  thru 
the  school  and  the  teacher  has  determined  is  good  for  the 
student  in  preparing  him  for  future  life  as  an  individual  and 
a  citizen. 

Unfortunately,  experiences  which  society  feels  the  child 
ought  to  have  are  not  always  such  that  the  child  fully  appre- 
ciates their  need,  and  therefore  they  do  not  have  for  him  a 
feeling  of  zest  in  their  accomplishment.     When  a  child  is 

85 


86  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

forced  to  do  a  thing  for  which  he  sees  no  need,  he  is,  without 
doubt,  making  connections  which  society  demands,  but  mak- 
ing them,  as  he  does,  with  resulting  satisfaction  only  in  that 
it  avoids  punishment,  the  moment  the  fear  and  authority  are 
removed,  such  connections  will,  to  say  the  least,  be  weaker 
than  those  made  with  an  accompanying  feeling  of  zest  and 
desire. 

2.  The  Law  of  Association  Applied  to  Interest  and  At- 
tention. The  educator's  problem  consists  in  hitching  or 
engrafting  reactions  not  immediately  possessed  of  a  feeling  of 
zest,  which  reaction  society  has  determined  are  helpful  for  the 
individual  in  enabling  him  the  better  to  meet  his  environment, 
upon  reactions  which  are  immediately  possessed  of  a  feeling 
of  zest.  The  law  of  association,  then,  may  be  modified  to 
read:  The  likelihood  that  an  individual  will  be  interested  in, 
or  pay  attention  to,  or  have  a  feeling  of  zest  in,  a  thing  or  act 
is  in  proportion  to  the  frequency,  recency,  intensity  and  result- 
ing satisfaction  of  previous  connections  between  that  thing 
or  act  and  some  thing  or  act  which  is  natively  possessed  of  a 
feeling  of  zest. 

A  grade  school  boy  is  not  normally  possessed  of  a  feeling 
of  zest  in  the  making  of  working  drawings.  Let  him  be  in- 
formed that  only  as  he  makes  preliminary  working  drawings 
for  certain  pieces  of  woodwork,  can  he  be  allowed  to  attempt 
such  pieces  of  woodwork,  and  the  beginnings  of  a  practical 
application  of  the  above  rule  are  being  made.  A  high  school 
boy  has  a  desire  to  make  a  library  table.  The  instructor  wishes 
him  to  acquire  tool  technic  in  the  making  of  a  mortise-and- 
tenon  joint.  The  leacher  can  get  such  a  boy  to  make  a  pre- 
liminary mortise-and-tenon  joint  with  a  feeling  of  zest  by 
associating  in  the  mind  of  the  boy  the  idea  of  the  necessity 
for  complete  mastery  of  technic  of  the  mortise-and-tenon 
joint  as  an  aid  the  better  to  make  the  table. 

3.  Feeling  of  Zest  Versus  Effort.     The  fact  that  a  thing 


INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION 87 

is  difficult  does  not  of  necessity  mean  that  its  accomplish- 
ment may  not  be  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  zest;  nor  does 
the  fact  that  a  thing  is  easy  mean  that  a  feeling  of  zest  must 
be  present.  We  like  to  do  those  things  we  can  do  well — 
those  things  in  which  there  is  a  growing  skill,  a  feeling  of 
mastery — not  so  hard  as  to  discourage,  and  not  too  easy. 

The  wise  teacher  will  not  seek  to  give  easy  experiences  to 
his  pupils  under  the  mistaken  notion  that  thereby  he  makes 
possible  feeling  of  zest,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  will  he  allow 
his  pupils  to  plunge  into  deep  waters  of  effort  because  they 
have  an  immediate  interest  in  some  thing  manifestly  too  diffi- 
cult for  them  at  that  stage  of  development.  For  example, 
ask  a  beginning  class  in  woodwork  what  they  would  like  to 
make,  and  not  uncommon  answers  are :  library  table,  hall 
clock,  desk,  etc.  A  good  teacher  will  not  ridicule  such  desires, 
but  will  utilize  them  as  a  means  of  attaching  a  feeling  of  zest 
or  interest  or  attention  to  the  simpler  beginning  projects  by 
explaining  that  the  desires  are  all  right  but  that  they  will 
have  to  wait  awhile  until  greater  skill  and  understanding  can 
be  developed.  This,  he  may  explain,  is  to  be  got  thru  the 
making  of  simpler  projects,  which  he  will  then  introduce. 

Prof.  Thorndike's  practical  advice:  "Get  the  right  things 
done  at  any  cost — but  get  them  done  with  as  little  inhibition 
and  strain  as  possible,"  is  good  advice  to  those  advocates  of 
a  pedagogy  so  soft  that  it  encourages  pupils  never  to  feel 
called  upon  to  do  anything  which  involves  effort  and  strain, 
or  to  do  some  things  thru  a  sense  of  duty,  the  doing  of  which 
is  not  immediately  possessed  of  a  feeling  of  zest.  It  is  also 
good  advice  for  those  who  ridicule  the  effort  to  attach  a  feel- 
ing of  zest  to  tasks  not  immediately  so  possessed  thru  associa- 
tion of  these  tasks  with  activities  or  ideas  natively  so  possessed 
— for  those  who  glorify  effort  or  strain  as  a  discipline. 

4.     Mental  Assimilation  a  Matter  of  Consciousness.     In 


86  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

2l  preceding  section  of  this  discussion  the  statement  was  made 
that  mental  assimilation  was  a  matter  of  consciousness — this 
by  Professor  John  Dewey.  A  proper  understanding  of  this 
is  necessary  if  those  who  advocate  the  doctrine  of  interest, 
or  feeling  of  zest,  as  a  necessary  basis  in  every  method  of 
education  are  not  to  be  confused  in  their  practice  and  con- 
founded by  their  adversaries. 

It  is  possible  to  sugar  coat  certain  mean  tasting  medicines 
and  give  these  to  children  without  their  being  made  aware 
of  the  mean  taste,  only  the  sugary  taste,  and  still  secure  a 
desired  medicinal  reaction.  It  is  possible  to  have  children 
develop  certain  useful  muscular  reactions  under  the  guise  of 
play.  When  it  comes  to  a  matter  of  connections  involving 
mind  or  intelligence  it  is  impossible  to  make  such  connections 
without  the  child's  being  aware  of  what  is  going  on.  For 
example,  a  boy  wants  a  sled ;  society  thru  the  school  is  not 
particularly  concerned  with  the  furnishing  of  a  sled  for  that 
boy,  or  any  other  boy — that  is  the  business  of  the  home  and 
the  parent.  Society,  however,  does  want  that  boy  to  acquire 
certain  useful  industrial  habits,  among  other  things.  It  finds 
it  can  have  the  boy  acquire  these  thru  making  the  sled,  and 
acquire  them  easier,  or  with  less  strain  than  thru  a  set  of 
abstract  exercises.  What  is  the  problem? — Not  one  of  con- 
cealing from  the  boy  a  knowledge  of  the  technical  pro'cesses 
involved,  but  eminently  one  of  fixing  his  attention  upon  them. 
So  far  as  the  boy  is  concerned  this  knowledge  of  correct 
methods  of  procedure  is  merely  a  means  to  an  end — a  means 
of  securing  a  well-made  sled.  So  far  as  society  is  concerned 
the  sled  is  a  means  to  another  end — the  acquiring  on  the  boy's 
part  of  useful  knowledge  and  habits.  The  sled  was  a  means 
of  motivating  the  technical  work  thru  creating  a  feeling  of 
need  for  technical  knowledge  and  skill. 

Some  teachers  are  even  frank  enough  to  explain  to  begin- 
ning classes  just  what  the  situation  is — a  cooperative  plan 


INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION  89 


whereby  both  society  and  boy  may  accomplish  their*  aims 
and  ends — one,  the  making  of  a  more  useful  citizen,  and  the 
other,  the  sled.  Mental  assimilation  here  is  a  matter  of  con- 
sciousness upon  the  part  of  the  boy.  Contrast  this  with  that 
type  of  experience  wherein  boys  are  given  no  instruction  in 
proper  technical  methods  of  procedure  but  by  some  miracle 
are  supposed  to  assimilate  it  unconsciously.  It  is  not  assimi- 
lated unless  attention  is  centered  upon  it.  This  is  the  reason 
it  is  unwise  to  claim  development  of  technical  understanding 
and  skill  in  expressional  and  illustrative  manual  arts  where  at- 
tention is  so  exclusively  centered  upon  the  idea  to  be  expressed 
and  not  upon  tool  technic. 

5.  Abstract  Exercises  Versus  Useful  Projects.  In  sec- 
tions 3  and  4  of  Chapter  V  there  was  discussed  the  place  of 
the  abstract  exercise  and  the  useful  project  in  manual  arts 
teaching.  The  strength  of  an  exercise  lies  in  its  permitting 
concentration  of  attention.  Its  weakness  lies  in  its  inability 
to  secure  an  accompanying  feeling  of  zest  when  required 
before  the  pupil  has  had  any  opportunity  to  try  himself  out 
and  thus  discover  the  need  for  such  exercises  as  a  prelimi- 
nary to  application. 

The  weakness  of  a  series  of  abstract  exercises  not  fol- 
lowed by  application  in  a  real  project  lies  in  the  fact  that 
connections  formed  in  dealing  with  parts  cannot  be  substi- 
tuted wholly  for  connections  formed  in  dealing  with  those 
parts  in  a  whole.  For  example,  we  may  give  mature  students 
a  course  in  carpentry  joint-making  and  hold  their  attention — 
even  securing  a  feeling  of  zest.  Valuable  as  this  experience 
may  be  as  a  preparation  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  the  appli- 
cation of  these  joints  in  a  completed  carpentry  project,  such, 
as  a  house  or  barn. 

The  question,  then,  is  not  one  of  abstract  exercises  versus 
useful  project,  for  the  answer  is  evidently  abstract  exercise 
and  useful  project.    The  question  really  is  one  as  to  the  appro- 


90  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

priate  time  or  place  of  introducing  the  exercise  so  that  it 
may  take  on  a  feeling  of  zest;  this  time  is  certainly  after  the 
pupil  has  had  enough  experience  of  a  simpler  kind  to  cause 
him  to  have  a  feeling  of  real  need  for  such  exercises  as  a 
preliminary  to  the  making  of  his  useful  project. 

6.  Drill  and  the  Feeling  of  Zest.  By  the  law  of  associa- 
tion repetition  or  frequency  is  an  essential  factor  in  fixing 
connections,  in  other  words,  drill.  No  little  confusion  exists 
as  to  the  merits  of  drill.  One  educator  conducts  experiments 
in  spelling  wherein  one  group  of  students  is  drilled  and  an- 
other group  is  not  formally  drilled,  and  proves  to  his  satis- 
faction that  drill  or  frequency  is  of  no  value.  An  examination 
of  the  facts  in  the  situation  would  probably  show  that  the 
deciding  factor  was  not  frequency  so  much  as  resulting  sat- 
isfaction. While  repetition  or  frequency  has  value  always  in 
fixing  connections  it  has  its  greatest  value  only  when  accom- 
panied by  a  feeling  of  real  need  and  a  feeling  of  zest  and 
resulting  satisfaction.  A  few  connections  with  intense  re- 
sulting satisfaction  will  fix  those  connections  better  than  a 
very  large  number  of  repetitions  or  frequencies  not  so  accom- 
panied. 

For  example,  a  certain  instructor  decided  that  he  wanted 
to  develop  skill  in  accurate  sawing.  He  took  as  one  of  his 
earliest  problems  in  the  course  what  he  chose  to  call  a  count- 
ing board.  Now,  his  pedagogy  in  choosing  the  counting 
board,  or  a  so-called  useful  project,  was  all  right.  He  also 
conceived  the  idea  that,  if  skill  in  sawing  was  to  be  developed, 
there  must  be  repetition  or  drill,  so  he  planned  his  stock  that 
the  boy  would  make  a  rather  large  number  of  preliminary  saw 
cuts  before  making  the  final  cut,  Fig.  11.  By  every  element 
of  logical  reasoning  each  cut  should  have  been  better  made 
than  the  preceding,  and  the  last  cut  the  best  of  all.  In  actual 
teaching  practice,  the  beginner  made  the  first  cuts  with  a 
certain  degree,  or  lack  of  degree  of  accuracy,  but  as  a  rule 


INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION  91 


the  cuts  got  worse  instead  of  better.  Noting  this  fact,  not 
a  few  boys  exercised  their  reasoning  "faculty"  and  skipped 
the  intermediate  cuts  making  the  final  cut  without  further 
delay.  What  was  the  trouble?  As  a  Normal  school  problem, 
this  logical  analysis  and  presentation  of  the  problem  would  be 


Fig.  11.     Game  Board. 

found  to  work.  It  didn't  work  as  a  beginning  problem  in 
seventh  grade  woodwork  because  these  boys  had  not  enough 
experience  to  have  developed  a  feeling  of  real  need  for  the 
preliminary  sawings,  and  most  of  all,  these  preliminary  saw- 
ings  interfered  with  getting  at  the  game  board,  which  was 
the  thing  that  interested  them. 

Should  there  be  drill,  or  frequency,  in  the  making  of  con- 
nections desired?  Yes,  but  so  planned  that  it  has  meaning. 
Eight  abstract  dado  joints  should  not  be  made  in  an  eighth 
grade.  One  preliminary  joint  can  be  made  to  function  here, 
but,  after  that,  let  the  repetition  be  made  in  the  form  of  a 
taboret,  a  bookshelf,  etc. — some  project  wherein  the  boy  will 
constantly  feel  the  need  for  his  best  effort  on  each  joint. 
Engineering  schools,  even,  are  abandoning  long  continued 
series  of  abstract  exercises,  for  even  mature  men  do  better 
where  there  is  some  incentive  for  drill  other  than  the  mere 
acquiring  of  efficiency. 

7.     Logical  Arrangement  of  Subject-Matter  Versus  Psy- 


92  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

chological  Development  of  the  Individual.  The  discussion 
of  the  section  just  preceding  should  have  developed  the  idea 
that  logical  arrangement  of  subject-matter  does  not  always 
harmonize  with  the  developing  nature  of  children.  In  such 
cases  there  are  often  found  two  extremes  in  educational 
practice — one,  which  disregards  logical  arrangement  of  sub- 
ject-matter in  its  eagerness  to  gratify  every  native  tendency 
of  children;  the  other  extreme  is  that  which  breaks  children 
by  inflexible  authority  until  they  fit  into  this  logical  arrange- 
ment of  subject-matter. 

Good  pedagogy  recognizes  this  conflict  in  aims  of  society 
and  native  interests  of  children  and  so  plans  that  it  may  be- 
gin with  emphasis  on  the  latter  and  by  associations  transfer 
these  native  interests  to  those  things  society  demands  of  an 
educated  individual.  Society  determines  what  shall  be  taught ; 
child  nature,  psychology,  determines  how  this  shall  be  taught. 

8.  Summary.  It  has  been  said  that  interest  is  the  indis- 
pensable basis  for  every  method  of  education.  For  the  sake 
of  clearness  we  may  assume  that  interest  and  attention  are 
one  and  the  same  thing.  An  individual,  then,  is  always  inter- 
ested in  anything  to  which  he  attends  or  of  which  he  is  defi- 
nitely conscious.  Interest  or  attention  may  be  accompanied 
by  a  feeling  of  zest  or  desire,  or  it  may  not;  it  is  to  this 
feeling  of  zest  we  refer  when  we  speak  of  interest  in  a  popu- 
lar sense,  as  in  the  statement  above. 

The  problem  of  education  is  one  of  getting  children  to 
attend,  to  take  interest  in  the  things  society,  thru  the  school, 
thinks  best  for  the  pupil  in  preparing  him  to  meet  environment, 
and  to  do  so  with  an  accompanying  feeling  of  zest.  The  law 
of  association  makes  clear  how  this  problem  is  to  be  solved 
when  we  apply  it  as  was  designated  in  the  chapter  on  instincts 
just  preceding.  The  likelihood  that  any  remote  reaction  will 
be  possessed  of  a  feeling  of  zest  is  in  proportion  to  the  re- 
cency, the   frequency,  the  intensity,  and  the  resulting  satis- 


INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION 93 

faction  of  connections  made  between  the  remote  reaction  and 
reactions  immediately  or  natively  possessed  of  a  feeling  of 
zest. 

Not  infrequently,  ease  of  accomplishment  is  confused  with 
feeling  of  zest,  and  effort  with  its  lack.  The  fact  that  a  thing 
is  difficult  does  not  of  necessity  mean  that  its  accomplishment 
may  not  be  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  zest;  nor  does  the 
fact  that  a  thing  is  easy  of  accomplishment  mean  that  a  feel- 
ing of  zest  must  be  present.  A  wise  teacher  will  not  seek 
to  give  easy  experiences  under  the  impression  that  in  so  doing 
he  makes  possible,  of  necessity,  a  feeling  of  zest  upon  the 
part  of  the  pupils.  Neither  will  he  shun  assigning  difficult 
tasks,  when  those  tasks  are  necessary,  just  because,  for  the 
time  being,  they  happen  to  be  lacking  in  feeling  of  zest. 
Thorndike's  practical  advice:  "Get  the  right  things  done  at 
any  cost,  but  get  them  done  with  as  little  inhibition  and  strain 
as  possible"  is  good  for  extremists  who  glory  in  a  soft  peda- 
gogy which  never  asks  children  to  attack  difficult  problems 
as  well  as  for  those  who  glory  in  effort  for  effort's  sake. 

Certain  muscular  habits  may  be  secured  without  the  child's 
being  conscious  of  what  is  going  on;  in  the  case  of  mental 
habits  there  can  be  no  assimilation  without  consciousness  or 
attention  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil.  This  means  that  the 
teacher  in  his  attempts  to  attach  a  feeling  of  zest  to  some 
remote  reaction  by  associating  it  with  some  reaction  immedi- 
ately possessed  of  a  feeling  of  zest  cannot  do  so  without  at 
some  time  and  in  some  way  fixing  the  pupil's  attention  upon 
the  remote  reaction.  The  teacher's  effort  should  be  not  one 
of  concealing  the  remote  reaction  desired  of  the  pupil  by 
society,  but  rather  one  of  getting  him  to  attend  to  the  fixing 
of  the  habits  of  the  remote  reaction  as  means,  so  far  as  the 
pupil  is  concerned  at  this  time,  of  securing  the  thing  in  which 
the  pupil  is  intrinsically  interested.  In  such  a  manner,  atten- 
tion may  be  fixed  upon  the  making  of  abstract  exercises  pre- 


94  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

paratory  to  application  in  projects.  Projects,  however,  of 
a  simpler  nature  must  precede  this  latter  experience  else  the 
pupil  has  no  basis  for  developing  a  feeling  of  need  for  the 
exercise. 

Drill  is  an  essential  factor  in  fixing  connections.  An  erro- 
neous conception  that  drill  cannot  be  accompanied  by  a  feeling 
of  zest  is  not  uncommon.  It  is  possible  to  so  attach  duplica- 
tion of  process  to  reactions  natively  possessed  of  a  feeling  of 
zest  that  drill  secures  values  which  come  thru  repetition  and 
thru  accompanying  feeling  of  satisfaction.  Drill  not  so  accom- 
panied, depending  merely  upon  frequency  or  repetition,  very 
largely  defeats  its  own  ends.  Eight  joints  of  a  given  kind 
in  a  taboret  a  boy  wants  are  better  than  eight  abstract  exer- 
cises repeated  as  so  much  drill. 

Logical  arrangement  of  subject-matter  and  psychological 
considerations  of  development  of  the  individual  conflict.  Good 
pedagogy  seeks  to  harmonize  this  conflict  by  granting  society 
the  right  to  determine  what  shall  be  taught  but  insisting  that 
psychology  shall  determine  how  this  shall  be  taught. 


Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapter  V. 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapters  X,  XI. 
Dewey:    How  We  Think,  Chapter  V. 

Allen :  The  Instructor,  the  Man,  and  the  Job,  Chapter 
XXXVII. 

Class  Discussion : 

1.  Differentiate  interest  from  attention,  if  you  can. 

2.  Enumerate  kinds  of  interest. 

3.  Differentiate   feeling  of  zest   from  interest. 

4.  State  the  law  of  association  so  as  to  make  it  applicable  to 
interest. 

5.  Thorndike  says :  "Get  the  right  things  done  at  any  cost, 
but  get  them  done  with  as  little  inhibition  and  strain  as 
possible."  Observe  how  this  is  being  done  in  some  class, 
and  try  to  determine  what  governed  the  teacher  in  deter- 
mining the  right  things. 

6.  List  a  number  of  ways  of  securing  interest  (feeling  of 
zest)   in  constructive  work,  and  state  the  approximate  de- 


INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION 95 

gree  of  strain  you  expect  to  have  manifested  in  securing 
the  result  desired. 

7.  A  child  makes  a  sled.  Is  interest  here  a  means  or  an  end  ? 
Explain. 

8.  Dewey  says :  "Mental  assimilation  is  a  matter  oi  conscious- 
ness." Is  there  any  value  in  having  a  boy  make  a  taboret 
to  produce  tool  technic  and  skill  when  he  seemingly  cares 
nothing  about  tool  technic  and  skill  but  only  for  the  fin- 
ished taboret?     Explain. 

9.  Can  you  see  any  place  for  the  abstract  exercise  in  shop  or 
construction  work?  Justify  your  answer  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  interest  is  the  indispensable  basis  of  every  method 
of  education. 

10.  If  attention  cannot  be  demanded,   how,  then,  can  it  be 
secured? 

11.  State  the  law  of  attention. 

12.  What  effect  has  a  pupil's  posture  upon  his  attention?  Why? 


CHAPTER   VII 

INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  J  THE  GROUP  SYSTEM 

1.  The  Law  of  Probability.  If  one  were  to  take  a  num- 
ber sufficiently  large  to  exclude  serious  effects  from  acci- 
dental variations  of  anything  in  nature,  and  classify  according 
to  some  particular  characteristic,  the  curve  plotted  to  repre- 
sent such  variations  would  be  similar  to  that  of  Fig.  12.    This 


Fig.  12.    Probability  Curve. 

is  known  as  the  probability  curve  and  the  law,  the  law  of 
probability.  It  is  also  known  as  the  biological  law.  For 
example,  if  we  take  1,000  or  more  people  and  classify  them 
as  to  height,  we  get  a  distribution  such  as  that  of  Fig.  13. 
If  we  take  an  equally  large  number  of  manual  training  boys 
and  give  them  like  tasks,  then  classify  them  according  to 
the  time  taken  to  perform  the  task  we  get  a  similar  distribu- 
tion. In  a  similar  manner  we  find  differences  in  ability  to 
execute  work,  in  ability  to  understand  proper  technic,  in  inter- 
est as  to  projects  to  be  made,  etc.,  etc.  No  two  people  are 
exactly  alike. 

2.  Practical  Significance  of  Individual  Differences.  In 
its  largest  or  group  significance  individual  variations  have, 
to  a  certain  extent,  always  been  recognized  in  our  scheme  of 

96 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


97 


education.  We  have  the  various  grades  in  the  common  and 
high  schools,  and  special  schools  for  the  subnormal  and  the 
delinquent,  in  the  larger  cities  at  least.    We  have  recognized 


6       8       70      Z       4 

Stature  in  inches 


80 


Fig.  13. 


Frequency-distribution  of  Stature  for  1000  Cambridge  Stu- 
dents.    From  Yule,  Theory  of  Statistics,  p.  91. 


certain  educational  needs  of  common  interest,  such  as  arith- 
metic, reading,  writing,  citizenship,  health,  etc.  After  this, 
we  have  differentiated  according  to  larger  special  activities, 
as  agriculture,  manual  arts,  household  arts,  etc.  Fig.  14,  a  and 
b.  We  have  recognized  differentiations  in  schools  in  types 
of  instruction  and  types  of  connection  to  be  made  for  those 
going  into  the  professions.  Within  very  recent  years  we  have 
begun  to  make  provisions  in  full-time,  part-time,  and  even- 
ing schools  for  those  who  must  early  leave  school  and  enter 
upon  vocational  activities  as  compared  with  those  who  will 


98  TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

take  a  college  course.  Fig.  14,  c  and  d.  The  problem  of  this 
discussion,  however,  is  not  concerned  so  much  with  these 
larger   differentiations    of    subject-matter   as   with    the   finer 


Fig.   14a.     Comparative  Educational  Needs  in  the   State  of  Missouri. 

Census    1910. 

groupings  for  teaching  purposes  within  the  manual  and  indus- 
trial arts. 

Older  manual  arts  teaching  practice  seemingly  tried  to  ig- 
nore facts  of  individual  differences.  Courses  were  organized 
as  tho  all  children  were  alike  in  mental  ability,  in  ability  to 
execute  in  wood,  metal,  and  other  media,  in  interests,  etc.  A 
certain  number  of  exercises  were  to  be  made  in  so  many 
periods;  the  teacher  set  the  problems,  which  were  the  same 
for  all.  The  young  teacher  who  planned  his  work  in  this 
manner,  of  course,  quickly  found  himself  in  a  dilemma — fast 
workers  completed  the  task  before  the  period  was  up;  slow 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES . 99 

workers  couldn't  get  thru  on  time ;  the  superintendent  refused 
to  allow  the  fast  workers  to  be  excused  before  the  close  of 
the  period,  for  various  reasons.  Rather  quickly  and  unpleas- 
antly it  dawned  upon  the  young  teacher  that  such  differences 
existed  and  that  some  means  must  be  found  to  provide  for 
them.  Had  he  not  been  hampered  by  public  school  condi- 
tions, he  might  easily  have  solved  the  problem  by  providing 
a  teacher  and  a  course  of  work  to  fit  the  needs  of  each  pupil. 
Not  being  able  to  do  this  he  is  driven  to  see  that,  while  no 
two  individuals  are  exactly  alike,  there  are  enough  similari- 
ties or  likenesses  to  make  possible  certain  groupings. 

3.  The  Group  System.  The  so-called  group  system  of 
organization  and  instruction  is  based  upon  the  fact  that,  while 
no  two  individuals  are  exactly  alike,  no  two  individuals  are 
entirely  different,  and  that  similarities  are  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  make  possible  certain  groupings  among  a  number  of 
individuals  for  purposes  of  subject-matter  organization  and 
instruction.  Examine  Fig.  13  for  illustration.  The  fact  that 
the  curve  is  constantly  changing  its  direction  indicates  that 
none  of  the  men  measured  for  height  were  of  exactly  the 
same  stature.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
interval  used  as  a  unit  of  measurement  is  the  inch.  Obviously, 
with  any  large  number  of  men  examined,  not  a  few  will  be 
found  to  fall  within  a  given  measurement  such  as  this. 

This  inch  represents,  then,  an -interval  selected  here  as  of 
sufficient  size  for  purposes  of  analysis,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
curve  as  plotted.  It  would  have  been  possible  to  have  taken 
a  smaller  interval ;  it  would  have  been  possible  to  have  taken 
a  larger  one.  To  have  taken  a  smaller  interval  would  have 
been  to  increase  the  accuracy  with  which  the  curve  could 
have  been  plotted  or  the  accuracy  with  which  the  analysis 
could  have  been  made.  To  have  increased  the  interval  would 
have  been  to  have  decreased  the  accuracy  of  differentiation. 

There  is,  of  course,  such  a  thing  as  having  groups  or  inter- 


100 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


Fig.  14b.     Illustrating  a  Survey  and  a  Plan  Suggested  for  Meeting  a 
ard's    "Some    Facts    Concerning    the    People,    Industries    and 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


Local  Community  Need  in  Industrial  Arts.   Charted  from  R.  J.  Leon- 
Schools  of  Hammond"  (Indiana).   Population 20,925  (1910). 


102         TZACHJXG  XfANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


vals  so  small  that  they  are  difficult  to  handle  as  a  means  of 
practical  investigation.  Again,  the  interval  may  be  so  large 
as    to    fail   to    distinguish    individuals    one    from   another    in 


Fig.   14c.     Educational  Activities  Based  upon  Vocational 
Interests  or  Needs. 

groups  sufficiently  numerous  to  indicate  anything  of  value. 
If,  in  Fig.  13,  for  example,  an  interval  of  eight  times  one 
inch  had  been  used,  all  men  then  would  have  classed  as  one 
and  nothing  as  to  differences  could  have  been  told, — no  curve 
could  have  been  plotted.  Figs.  12,  15,  and  16  can  be  similarly 
analyzed. 

The  essential  thing  to  be  derived  from  a  consideration  such 
as  that  of  the  preceding  paragraph  is  the  fact  that  wherever 
there  is  change  and  difference,  whether  in  time  or  in  char- 
acteristics of  one  kind  or  another,  the  only  means  we  have  of 
making  an   analysis — of  plotting  the   curve — is   to  break  up 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


103 


the  movement  into  intervals  or  groups  each  based  upon  some 
finite  unit  of  measurement.  The  group  system  in  organiza- 
tion  and  teaching  manual  and  industrial  arts  is  merely  an 

The,  Leisure  Hour 


i  Outgrowth  of  jhop 

"safety  firjf 
Interest  in  home  and  1^, 
comm unity  hygiene   \ 5 i 

1^1  Safety 
vl 
\ 


*&&**<^ 

J&&** 

&*&?*> 

*: 


V  a*1    /      £»?„">£  c<"**ct  with  all    %%*   ^  %  *\W 

c*.  >;  ^e  a  e  man-        i     \p  *■  %  %  ^/ 

**«*;  ***».  jfo>/».  ^/,oo/'       vl  %  "S.  \s^ 


'on, 


The 


Good  Citizen. 


Fig.  14d.    The  Tradesman  and  His  Opportunities  for  the  Larger  Life. 
By  Assistant  Professor  James  McKinney,  University  of  Illinois. 

application  of  this  practical  device,  as  old  as  time  itself,  by 
which  certain  areas,  to  refer  to  Fig.  15,  may  be  set  off  between 
the  base  line  and  the  line  which  represents  progress. 


104 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


Philosophically  we  make  use  of  the  group  system  in  every 
consideration  of  a  given  characteristic  of  any  kind  which  is 
dynamic  or  changing  or  moving,  for,  to  consider  implies  to 
select,  and  selection  is  possible  .only  thru  grouping.  In  the 
discussion  which  follows,  then,  it  should  be  remembered  that 


New  subject- matter 


Accumulated  know- 
ledge  and  sH\\\. 


Grade  W 


Grade  Ml         Grade  JZ 


Fig.  15.     Accumulation  of  Knowledge  and  Skill  thru  Progressive 
Grouping  of   Subject   Matter. 


it  is  not  a  question  as  to  whether  we  shall  group  or  not  group 
but  rather  as  to  the  most  convenient  size  of  the  group  we  are 
to  use  as  an  interval  for  purposes  of  practical  considerations 
of  matters  of  administration. 

4.  The  Group  System  Applied  to  the  Manual  and  Indus- 
trial Arts.  Historically,  American  manual  arts  practice 
has  been  influenced  greatly  by  two  foreign  movements — the 
Russian  system  of  tool  instruction  and  Swedish  sloyd.  The 
former  was  organized  by  M.  Victor  Delia  Vos  at  Moscow  for 
purposes  of  better  training  men  for  railway  shop  and  engineer- 
ing work,  and  was  thoroly  technical  in  its  aspects.  Swedish 
sloyd  arose  in  response  to  a  demand  for  a  better  type  of 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 105 

citizenship.  Both  systems  emphasized  orderly  introduction 
of  instruction  in  the  use  of  tools,  the  former  by  the  use  of 
abstract  exercises,  the  latter  mainly  thru  the  use  of  the  useful 
model.  In  methods  of  teaching,  the  former  made  use  of  the 
class  as  the  unit  while  the  latter  gave  instruction  individually. 
American  practice  makes  use  of  both  exercise  and  useful 
model  and  the  instruction  is  by  class  first  with  this  supple- 
mented by  individual  instruction  as  necessary. 

Examine  the  type  outlines,  Griffith:  Correlated  Courses, 
pp.  12-15;  22-26,  Technical  Shopwork  and  Mechanical  Draw- 
ing, Grades  VII-X.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  subject-matter 
here  is  grouped  under  certain  headings.  The  work  is  sup- 
posed to  be  sequential  in  the  main,  going  from  simple  to  more 
difficult  operations.  After  the  first  group  there  are  a  number 
of  projects  in  each  group.  Each  project  in  a  given  group  is 
similar  to  that  of  every  other  project  in  the  group.  A  student 
upon  completing  at  least  one  project  in  each  group  will  have 
completed  the  minimum  essentials  in  this  course  of  work. 

Now,  as  to  allowances  for  variations  in  speed,  the  class 
remains  working  in  a  group  until  at  least  one  project  has  been 
completed  by  every  boy  who  is  to  be  considered  as  passable. 
This  means  that  the  rapid  worker,  while  he  gains  no  more 
than  the  slow  one  in  instruction  or  technic  does  gain  in  fa- 
cility in  execution  and  in  opportunity  to  make  more  things. 
Allowance  is  made  for  variation  in  interests  in  that  a  boy 
has  freedom  in  his  choice  of  projects  within  the  group.  Still 
further  allowances  for  variation  are  made  in  these  type  out- 
lines in  that  the  farther  a  boy  progresses  the  larger  the  num- 
ber of  projects  from  which  to  select.  Also,  after  a  fair  degree 
of  efficiency  and  understanding  is  secured,  he  is  not  only 
permitted  but  encouraged  to  modify  the  projects  the  better 
to  meet  his  individual  needs,  subject  only  to  limitations  of 
the  group  processes.  Should  he  want  to  make  a  project  not 
in  the  groups,  he  is  expected  to  abide  his  time  until  the  group 


106         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


having  the  instruction  pertaining  to  the  making  of  that  project 
shall  have  been  reached. 

It  will  have  been  noted  in  the  examination  of  the  typical 
outlines  referred  to  above  that  the  farther  a  student  advances 
in  the  work  the  larger  is  the  amount  of  subject-matter  and 
experience  in  any  given  group,  Fig.  15.  The  amount  of  new 
subject-matter  is  not  necessarily  much  greater  but  the  accu- 
mulating technical  knowledge  and  skill  makes  it  possible  to 
construct  projects  which  are  quite  complicated  and  which 
require  much  time  for  completion.  In  grade  eight  any  one 
student  will  complete  not  more  than  three  or  four  projects 
at  the  most,  together  with  the  accompanying  drawings,  while 
in  grade  seven  he  will  have  completed  six  or  seven  projects 
in  the  same  time  allotment.  In  high  school  the  projects  are 
more  involved  in  construction  than  in  the  eighth  grade. 

A  question  might  be  raised  as  to  the  advisability  or  desir- 
ability of  limiting  pupils  to  choice  within  a  group.  Only  in 
this  way  is  it  possible  to  care  for  large  numbers,  and  child 
nature  has,  as  has  been  said,  more  likenesses  than  differences. 
Boys  of  twenty  years  ago  took  interest  in  taborets  at  a  certain 
stage  of  development;  they  still  take  such  an  interest.  So 
long  as  the  taboret  serves  a  useful  purpose  in  education  better 
than  something  else,  it  should  not  be  eliminated  merely  for 
the  sake  of  change.  It  is  possible  to  select  representative  pro- 
jects which  will  secure  interest  and  at  the  same  time  permit 
orderly  instruction  in  tool  processes.  It  is  recognized  that 
such  an  arrangement  is  somewhat  formal — individuals  are 
not  treated  wholly  as  individuals. 

In  answer  to  such  criticism  it  may  be  cited  that  no  man 
lives  to  himself  alone  in  society,  and  that  if  education  is, 
among  other  things,  a  preparation  for  living,  such  limitations 
are  helpful  rather  than  harmful.  The  homely  story  of  the 
Irish  immigrant,  brought  before  the  police  judge  in  New 
York  City  for  assault,  illustrates  the  point  at  issue.     He  had 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 107 

"punched"  another  man's  nose.  "Why  did  you  do  it,  Pat"? 
asked  the  judge.  "Faith,  your  Honor"!  he  replied,  "I  had 
always  heard  in  Ireland  that  America  was  a  land  of  liberty, 
and  I  was  just  exercising  my  liberty  when  this  man's  nose 
got  in  the  way."  The  judge  replied,  "This  is  a  land  of  liberty, 
but  your  liberty  ends  where  the  other  man's  nose  begins.  You 
are  sentenced  thirty  days  for  assault." 

Expressional  manual  arts,  central  and  illustrative,  will  take 
its  groupings  not  according  to  processes  but  according  to  pro- 
jects determined  by  the  subject-matter  of  the  academic  work. 
If,  for  example,  the  aim  is  to  develop  number  and  language 
ideas  thru  the  construction  of  the  doll  house,  the  construction 
work  will  be  arranged  with  this  thought  in  mind,  the  teacher 
having  in  mind  the  academic  requirements  in  number  and 
language  work  for  a  given  month  or  week  for  a  given  grade. 
An  examination  of  the  type  outlines  in  Appendix  II,  Expres- 
sional Handwork.  Grades  I- VI,  will  indicate  groupings  of 
expressional  manual  arts  quite  suggestive  in  character. 

Industrial  arts,  like  manual  arts,  will  have  to  be  organized 
for  teaching  purposes  upon  a  group  basis.  The  present  finds  a 
number  of  different  practices  in  common  use.  One  set  of 
administrators  advocates  a  grouping  wholly  on  the  basis  of 
production.  Instruction,  they  say,  will  care  for-  itself  as  an 
incident  to  production.  Others  advocate  a  grouping  accord- 
ing to  instructional  needs,  production  being  an  incident.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  grouping  here  is  due  to  the  fact,  already 
mentioned,  that  the  giving  of  instruction,  which  has  to  do 
with  intellect,  is  opposed  to  the  development  of  efficiency,  which 
has  to  do  with  feeling  and  skill.  Industrial  arts  must  develop 
efficiency,  but  efficiency  depends  upon  instruction. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  text  to  discuss  fully 
the  problem  of  appropriate  grouping  of  subject-matter.  But 
in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  those  schools  which  have  differ- 
entiated subject-matter  and  experiences  into  groups  for  pur- 


108         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

poses  of  instruction  on  the  one  hand  and  of  production  or 
efficiency  on  the  other,  with  rather  close  alternation,  come 
nearest  a  proper  solution.  For  an  example  of  a  typical  group- 
ing for  industrial  arts  purposes,  consult  Bennett's  The  Manual 
Arts,  pp.  96-99.  It  will  be  noted  that  an  instructional  group 
precedes  each  production  or  efficiency-producing  group.  The 
alternation  is  so  arranged  that  the  student  gets  a  basis  for 
future  production  work  in  each  new  group  thru  instruction 
and  preliminary  exercise.  This  is  superior  to  the  Russian 
system,  for  in  the  Russian  system  the  opportunity  for  prac- 
tical application,  or  the  securing  of  efficiency,  came  only  after 
a  rather  extended  course  in  instruction  and  exercise. 

It  should  be  especially  noted  that  production  projects  are 
to'  be  selected  and  so  placed  in  the  groups,  that  they  shall 
provide  opportunity  for  gaining  efficiency  in  the  application 
of  the  instruction  of  the  preceding  group.  This  implies  fore- 
thought upon  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  selecting  his  project 
work  to  see  that  experiences  are  introduced  in  a  reasonable 
order  as  to  difficultness  and  to  see  that  all  necessary  experi- 
ences are  provided  for  at  some  place. 

Quite  different  is  this  practice  from  that  wherein  the  insti- 
tution executes  orders  for  work  as  such  work  happens  to  be 
needed  about  the  building.  If  the  process  is  to  be  really 
educative  it  must  be  "construction  for  instruction,  rather  than 
instruction  for  construction";  certainly  not  construction 
merely  for  construction's  sake.  A  class  might  spend  two  or 
three  years  doing  repair  work  about  school  buildings  and 
still  have  no  adequate  preparation  for  carpentry  as  a  trade. 
Experiences  must  be  selected  and  arranged  beforehand  and 
not  left  to  chance.  If  there  is  to  be  growth,  as  there  must 
be  if  the  process  is  educative,  the  curve  which  represents 
accomplishment  must  be  constantly  changing  and  ever  be  up- 
ward in  its  general  direction.  For  practical  purposes  it  must 
change  group  by  group,  and  growth  must  be  possible  thru 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 109 

not  too  great  steps  at  any  one  interval,  Fig.  15.  If  the  steps 
are  too  great,  trouble  will  be  occasioned  thru  violation  of 
the  principle  of  apperception. 

In  the  industrial  arts,  the  number  of  students  assigned  to 
any  one  teacher  for  instruction  and  oversight  is  generally 
much  smaller  than  is  the  case  in  manual  arts.  This  makes 
possible  greater  differentiation  in  management.  Industrial 
arts  teachers  often  have  such  small  numbers  in  a  group  that 
the  progress  of  students  may  be  independent  one  of  another, 
with  the  instruction  individual. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  efficiency  is  such  an  important  fac- 
tor in  industrial  arts,  and  the  further  fact  that  individual 
instruction  is  so  expensive,  there  is  a  question  as  to  whether 
public  schools  are  justified  in  differentiations  so  great  as  to 
permit  of  individual  instruction.  Rather,  the  group  might 
better  be  set  for  normal  time,  and  normal  quantitative  and 
qualitative  production  requirements,  with  class  instruction 
at  stated  intervals.  The  fast  workers  gain  in  efficiency  in 
execution  tho  they  may  be  held  back  somewhat  thru  having 
to  await  instruction  in  new  subject-matter  because  of  class 
organization  based  upon  the  slower  students'  capacity  to  exe- 
cute. It  must  be  recognized,  of  course,  that  certain  types  of 
industrial  work  lend  themselves  to  class  instruction  better  than 
others.  Availability  of  duplicate  equipment  also  will  qualify 
groupings  as  to  numbers  to  be  accommodated  at  any  one 
time.  Instruction  wherein  the  student  is  introduced  to  dan- 
gerous machines,  as  in  a  wood  shop,  will  have  to  be  given 
to  smaller  groups  of  students  than  will  instruction  in  smithing, 
etc. 

5.  Grouping  for  Classification  and  Grading.  Since  no 
two  individuals  are  exactly  alike  the  curve  which  represents 
any  selected  characteristic,  as  has  been  stated,  will  constantly 
vary,  Fig.  12.  For  purposes  of  convenience  we  may  group 
individuals  as  in  Fig.  16 — 2  per  cent  excellent,  23  per  cent 


110         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


superior,  50  per  cent  medium,  23  per  cent  inferior,  2  per  cent 
failure.  The  so-called  average  pupil  may  then  be  considered 
as  of  the  50  per  cent  medium  group.  Some  institutions  even 
accentuate  such  differences  by  an  award  of  30  per  cent  excess 
credit  to  the  2  per  cent  E,  15  per  cent  excess  to  the  23  per  cent 
S,  with  a  diminished  credit  of  15  per  cent  from  the  I.     F, 


Z3% 


JOZ 


M 


23% 


& 


F 


Fig.   16.     A  Given  Characteristic  Arbitrarily  Distributed  for  Con- 
venience in  Classification. 

ordinarily,  does  not  represent  the  mentally  or  physically  sub- 
normal or  defective.  These  are  not  supposed  to  be  allowed 
in  a  normal  group,  but  rather  F  stands  for  those  who  have 
ability  but  who  do  not  apply  themselves  to  the  task  assigned 
as  they  should  to  meet  the  essentials  set  for  that  particular 
group. 

Larger  or  smaller  intervals  might  have  been  selected,  of 
course,  but  for  practical  purposes  those  suggested  will  be 
found  convenient  and  sufficiently  limiting  in  scope.  Any 
teacher  of  extended  experience  knows  how  profitless  is  the 
time  spent  in  trying  to  estimate  pupils  or  to  group  them  in 
smaller  intervals.  Those  teachers  who  mark  pupils  in  terms 
of  percents  or  half  percents  unnecessarily  burden  themselves, 
if  they  are  doing  their  work  conscientiously.  The  chief  pur- 
pose of  grading  is  that  of  rewarding  good  work,  and  pupils 
find   rewards   that   are   distributed   as  mentioned  equally  as 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 111 

stimulating  as  where  the  teacher  seeks  to  refine  the  intervals 
to  fractional  percents.  Some  instructors  grade  simply  as 
"passed"  or  "not  passed."  Experience  seems  to  show  that 
such  a  large  unit  is  not  sufficiently  discriminating  as  a  reward 
to  get  all  pupils  to  do  their  best,  many  strong  students  being 
satisfied  to  do  merely  passing  work  who  otherwise  would  do 
superior  or  excellent. 

There  will  be  occasion  to  refer  to  this  section  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  standards  and  tests,  Chapter  XIV. 

6.  Grouping  for  Developing  Initiative.  Mention  has 
been  made  of  the  fact  that,  once  a  fair  degree  of  understanding 
and  skill  has  been  developed  in  technical  manual  arts,  a  pupil 
is  to  be  encouraged  to  modify  designs  in  a  group  to  meet 
his  individual  needs.  Also,  that  *he  is  to  be  encouraged  to 
design  his  own  projects,  subject  only  to  awaiting  the  time 
they  can  be  constructed  with  projects  of  similar  processes. 
In  addition  to  this,  it  seems  advisable  to  set  aside  an  occasional 
group  where  attention  can  be  centered  upon  individual  initia- 
tive. Such  groups  may  be  limited  to  the  extent  the  projects 
designed  shall  have  no  technical  requirements  other  than  what 
have  been  taught  in  previous  groups. 

7.  Summary.  If  one  were  to  take  a  number  sufficiently 
large  to  exclude  serious  effects  from  accidental  variations  of 
anything  in  nature  and  classify  according  to  some  particular 
characteristic,  the  resulting  numerical  distribution  would  make 
evident  the  fact  that  no  two  are  exactly  alike.  If  the  results 
were  to  be  plotted  in  the  form  of  a  graph,  the  curve  would 
offer  visual  proof  of  such  variations.  The  law  by  which 
these  distributions  are  controlled  is  known  as  the  law  of 
probability. 

In  its  largest  significance  individual  variations  have,  to 
a  certain  extent,  always  been  recognized  in  our  scheme  of 
education.  The  problem  of  this  discussion  is  concerned  not 
so  much  with  these  larger  differentiations  of  subject-matter 


112        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

needs  as  with  the  finer  groupings  within  the  manual  and  in- 
dustrial arts  for  teaching  purposes. 

The  so  called  group  system  of  organization  and  instruction 
is  based  upon  the  fact  that,  while  no  two  individuals  are 
exactly  alike,  no  two  are  entirely  unlike,  and  that  similarities 
are  sufficiently  numerous  to  make  possible  certain  groupings 
among  a  number  of  individuals  for  purposes  of  organization 
and  instruction.  The  essential  thing  to  be  derived  from  a 
consideration  of  the  group  system  is  the  fact  that  wherever 
there  is  change  or  difference  the  only  means  we  have  of 
making  analyses  is  to  break  up  the  movement  into  convenient 
intervals  or  groups,  each  based  upon  some  finite  unit  of  meas- 
urement. The  group  system  in  manual  and  industrial  arts 
is  merely  an  application  oi  this  practical  device,  as  old  as 
time  itself.  In  the  discussion,  the  question  is  not  one  of 
grouping  or  not  grouping,  but  rather  as  to  the  most  convenient 
size  of  the  group  for  purposes  of  practical  consideration  of 
matters  of  administration  and  instruction. 

Historically,  American  manual  arts  practice  has  been  greatly 
influenced  by  two  foreign  movements — the  Russian  system 
of  tool  instruction  and  Swedish  sloyd.  Both  systems  empha- 
sized orderly  introduction  of  tool  instruction,  one  thru  the 
use  of  exercises  and  the  other  thru  the  useful  model.  The 
former  made  use  of  class  instruction,  in  the  latter  the  instruc- 
tion was  individual.  American  practice  makes  use  of  both 
exercise  and  useful  model.  The  instruction  is  by  class  first, 
and  this  supplemented  by  individual  attention  as  necessary. 

For  purposes  of  convenience  in  classification  for  rewards 
thru  grading,  we  may  group  individuals  as  2  per  cent  excellent, 
23  per  cent  superior,  50  per  cent  medium,  23  per  cent  inferior, 
2  per  cent  failure.  Larger  or  smaller  intervals  might  have 
been  selected;  for  practical  purposes  those  selected  are  con- 
venient, easy  of  administration,  and  sufficiently  limiting  to 
serve  the  purpose. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 113 

Certain  groups  should  be  set  aside  in  technical  manual  arts 
wherein  the  student  may  be  given  opportunity  to  exercise  initi- 
ative. At  first,  such  attempts  should  be  limited  to  the  appli- 
cation to  new  projects  of  information  obtained  thru  past  in- 
struction. Whether  such  groups  shall  be  set  aside  in  indus- 
trial arts  depends  upon  the  aim  of  the  course.  Any  course 
which  is  intended  to  develop  leadership  and  its  responsibili- 
ties should  certainly  provide  such  group  opportunities. 

Reading  References : 

Thorndike:    Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapters  VI,  VII. 

Bennett :     The  Manual  Arts,  Chapters  VI,  VII. 

Allen :     The  Instructor,  the  Man  and  the  Job,  Chapters  V- 

VIII. 
Griffith:     Correlated  Courses,  pp.  10-28. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  Judging  from  the  graphs  on  pages  71,  72,  75  of  Thorndike's 
Principles  of  Teaching,  what  conclusion  do  you  draw  as  to 
the  advisability  of  attempting  to  secure  a  like  amount  of 
work  or  the  same  degree  of  technic  and  skill  from  all  the 
pupils? 

2.  What  is  your  opinion  of  an  arrangement  for  purposes  of 
classification — 2  to  5  per  cent,  excellent;  20  per  cent,  su- 
perior; 50  per  cent,  medium;  20  per  cent,  inferior;  2  to  5 
per  cent,  failure? 

3.  Explain  in  what  manner  Thorndike's  graphs  seem  to  justify 
such  classification. 

4.  What  is  your  understanding  of  the  term,  average  pupil? 

5.  What  is  your  opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of  giving  excess 
and  diminished  credit — 30  per  cent  excess  for  E;  15  per 
cent  for  S ;  15  per  cent  diminished  credit  for  I. 

6.  Does  F  stand  for  defective  or  subnormal  in  the  above 
scheme  ? 

7.  If  "every  stimulus  must  be  given  not  to  children  in  gen- 
eral, but  to  a  particular  individual  or  group  characterized 
by  certain  peculiarities",  what  of  class  teaching? 

8.  Granted  sufficient  teaching  force  or  staff,  is  individual  in- 
struction better  than  instruction  to  a  reasonable  number 
possessing  like  peculiarities?    Discuss. 

9.  Tn  public  schools,  individual  instruction  is  < hardly  possible 
irrespective   of   any   considerations   of    desirability.     State 


114        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


definitely  just  how  you  expect  to  make  allowances  for  varia- 
tion on  the  part  of  your  pupils  in  the  matter  of  interest, 
execution  or  skill,  and  technic  or  form. 

10.  How  do  you  expect  to  develop  initiative  and  at  the  same 
time  teach  the  pupils  the  conventional  ways  of  manipulating 
the  material  to  be  worked  on? 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CORRELATION  AND  ASSOCIATION 

1.  Correlation.  No  other  topic  has  appeared  so  fre- 
quently upon  the  programs  of  the  drawing  and  manual  train- 
ing associations  in  the  United  States  as  that  of  correlation. 
To  correlate  or  not  to  correlate  seems  to  be  an  ever  present 
topic  for  discussion.  Shall  manual  training  shopwork  and 
design  be  correlated?  Shall  shopwork  and  mechanical  draw- 
ing be  correlated?  Shall  machine  drawing  and  machine  shop 
work  be  correlated?  Shall  shopwork  or  drawing  and  aca- 
demic subjects,  such  as  arithmetic  and  English,  etc.,  be  cor- 
related? Some  teachers  frankly  oppose  correlation;  some 
favor  correlation  provided  their  special  subject  becomes  the 
center  or  core  about  which  the  correlations  are  to  be  made. 
Others  recognize  correlation  as  highly  desirable  but  believe 
such  a  conflict  exists  in  any  attempt  at  correlation  that  each 
special  subject  must  go  its  own  way. 

Correlation  is  the  native  state  of  mind  of  children.  Re- 
ferring to  Professor  James*  famous  phrase,  it  is  out  of  a  big, 
blooming,  buzzing  confusion  that  consciousness  arises  as  a 
result  of  a  differentiation  of  elements  which  go  to  make  up 
this  confusion.  This  analogy  serves  well  to  indicate  both  the 
strength  and  the  weakness  of  correlation  as  an  educational 
principle.  If  consciousness  is  a  development  out  of  oneness 
— out  of  a  "big,  blooming,  buzzing,  confusion"  thru  differen- 
tiations, it  may  readily  be  inferred  that  little  children  are  to 
be  taught  thru  closely  correlated  subject-matter — not  arith- 
metic as  arithmetic,  not  handwork  as  handwork,  but  all  a 
part  of  one  unified  experience.  As  they  grow  older,  differen- 
tiations may  well  be  emphasized  until  we  have  arithmetic, 
language,  science,  manual  training,  etc. — each  as  a  subject  in 
itself. 

115 


116        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


2.  Correlation  Another  Name  for  Association.  Correla- 
tion is  but  another  name  for  association  and  what  has  been 
said  of  association  and  the  law  of  association  applies  equally 
to  correlation.  If  we  would  be  assured  that  certain  connec- 
tions, as  that  the  facts  of  mechanical  drawing  will  be  utilized 
in  connection  with  the  wood  shop  problems,  we  must  see  that 
such  connections  are  made  with  frequency,  recency,  intensity 
and  resulting  satisfaction.  The  more  specific  and  direct  the 
connections  or  the  correlation,  the  more  certain  are  we  that 
such  connections  will  be  made  again  under  similar  circum- 
stances. The  more  general  the  instruction  and  the  wider  the 
possibilities  for  application,  the  weaker  are  the  connections 
likely  to  be. 

3.  Two  Types  of  Correlation.  For  the  sake  of  convenience 
we  may  speak  of  correlations  as  of  two  types — immediate  and 
remote  or  direct  and  indirect  For  example,  a  class  of  fourth 
grade  children  may  be  taken  to  a  blacksmith  shop.  They  may 
watch  the  men  at  work;  question  as  directed  as  to  tools,  pro- 
cesses, etc.,  etc.  Upon  returning  to  the  school  they  may  write 
up  their  experiences  in  the  form  of  very  definite  lessons  both 
in  language  and  in  number  work.  They  may  make  drawings  to 
illustrate  parts  in  their  lessons — drawings  of  the  anvil  with 
the  names  of  the  parts  properly  placed  thereon,  etc.  They 
may  make  booklet  covers  to  hold  these  and  similar  lessons, 
decorating  the  cover  page.  This  might  well  be  considered  a 
correlation  between  elementary  handwork  and  design,  lan- 
guage and  number  work,  and  blacksmithing.  Blacksmithing, 
however,  will  not  be  taught  that  class  until  second  year  high 
school,  and  then  to  the  boys  only.  Nevertheless,  we  may 
justly  call  even  blacksmithing  a  correlation — a  remote  cor- 
relation or,  as  Dr.  Judd  calls  it,  a  correlation  in  the  mind  of 
the  child  rather  than  a  correlation  of  time. 

An  example  of  immediate  or  direct  correlation  will  be 
found  in  the  outlines  for  woodwork  and  mechanical  drawing. 


CORRELATION  AND  ASSOCIATION 


117 


Griffith,  Correlated  Courses,  pp.  22-26.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  here  to  make  the  mechanical  drawing  serve  the 
woodwork  thru  having  the  principles  of  mechanical  drawing 
taught  in  the  making  of  drawings  for  the  woodwork.     The 


Absence   of  correlation 
c  £ 


D  F 

Correlation 


Correlation    to  be  made 
Fig.  17. 


woodwork  in  turn  serves  the  drawing  thru  motivating  it,  that 
is,  giving  the  boys  a  feeling  of  real  need  for  the  drawing 
experience. 

4.  Advantages  and  Limitations  of  Immediate  Correla- 
tions. Certain  advantages  and  disadvantages  which  accrue 
thru  the  correlating  of  one  subject  with  another  or  one  ac- 
tivity with  another  may  be  illustrated  by  a  diagram  such  as 
that  of  Fig.  17.  If  a  journey  is  to  be  made  from  A  to  B  a 
traveler  will  experience  little  uncertainty  and  delay  upon  a 
road  which  has  no  intersecting  roads.  If  there  should  be  an 
intersecting  road  from  C  to  D,  he  may  have  to  stop  and 
inquire  at  the  cross-road  which  road  to  take  to  go  to  B.  Let 
him  come  to  another  intersection  like  that  at  E-F,  and  again 
he  hesitates — the  greater  the  number  of  intersections  or  con- 


118        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

nections  the  more  time  will  he  lose  in  stopping  to  determine 
the  right  road.  So  in  correlations,  the  more  widely  we  relate 
an  idea  or  an  act,  the  less  efficient  is  any  one  connection, 
which  otherwise  can  find  expression  in  one  direction  only. 
We  increase  the  cross-roads,  as  it  were,  and  these  tend  to 
hold  up  the  traveler  as  he  is  not  held  up  when  he  can  go 
only  straight  ahead. 

From  considerations  like  this  we  might  conclude  that  cor- 
relations or  associations  are  to  be  avoided;  that  educational 
ends  are  best  served  when  we  specialize — take  a  direct  route 
to  a  specific  end.  If  we  wish,  for  example,  to  teach  percentage 
to  a  carpenter,  let  us  teach  it  not  as  principles  of  percentage 
with  its  by-paths  or  cross-roads  into  banking  business,  into 
sheet-metal  trade,  etc.,  etc.  In  other  words,  let  us  take  path 
A-B  which  has  no  cross-roads.  Now,  so  long  as  one  so 
taught  continues  to  travel  the  road  of  percentage  in  carpentry, 
well  and  good — this  direct  method  is  most  efficient.  However, 
suppose  such  an  one  should  be  called  upon  to  travel  not  from 
A  to  B  but  from  A  to  G,  and  no  cross-roads  are  present,  Fig. 
17.  According  to  the  law  of  association  he  will  not  know 
how  or  where  to  get  off  the  road  A-B,  except  by  trial  and 
error.     As  Professor  James  would  say,  he  is  non-plussed. 

Fig.  18  further  illustrates  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  correlation.  Correlation  may  be  likened  to  a  city  having 
many  connecting  roads  leading  into  it.  A  cross-country  auto- 
mobilist  will  find  it  easy  to  get  into  such  a  city.  When  he 
attempts  to  get  out,  however,  he  finds  more  confusion  than 
he  would  have  found  had  there  been  but  one  road. 

5.  Conflicting  Aims.  From  what  has  been  said  it  may 
readily  be  seen  that  generalized  and  specialized  training  are 
but  one  aspect  of  the  problem  of  correlation  or  lack  of  cor- 
relation and  that  the  aims  conflict.  The  stream  of  conscious- 
ness is  of  a  given  volume.  When  we  spread  it  out  thru  many 
connections  or  correlations,  we  necessarily  make  it  shallow; 


CORRELATION  AND  ASSOCIATION 


119 


when  we  deepen  it  thru  specialization  and  the  elimination  of 
connections  we  necessarily  make  it  narrow.  Shallow  minded 
people  are  equally  as  unfortunate  as  are  narrow  minded  peo- 


Fig.  18.     Illustrating  Advantage  and  Disadvantage  of  Correlation. 

pie,  and  vice  versa.  A  person  who  can  do  everything  usually 
can  do  no  one  thing  well.  On  the  other  hand,  a  person  who 
is  narrowly  trained  may  be  called  upon  to  meet  life  along 
some  other  line  of  endeavor;  he  is  then  non-plussed.  The 
problem  is  one  of  those  educational  problems  which  do  not 
admit  of  an  ideal  solution.  In  general  education  we  must 
spread  out  to  a  certain  extent  for  we  want  to  produce  a  type 


120        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

of  individual  capable  of  meeting  a  number  of  situations  fairly 
well.  After  these  minimal  essentials  of  breadth  have  been 
obtained,  we  ought  to  separate  pupils  into  groups  for  pur- 
poses of  specialization,  narrowing  and  deepening  their  con- 
nections within  the  special  group.  By  refering  to  Fig.  14  a,  b, 
c  and  d  we  get  a  good  notion  of  the  educational  problem  as  it 
has  to  do  with  generalized  subject-matter  and  special  subject- 
matter.  These  charts  may  represent  the  life  of  an  individual  as 
it  has  to  do  with  his  formal  education.  The  problem  is  to  a 
very  large  extent  an  administrative  problem  as  well  as  a 
psychological  and  pedagogical  problem.  We  do  not  and  can- 
not in  our  schools  teach  individuals,  we  must  teach  groups 
with  like  characteristics  and  like  life  aims. 

6.  Practical  Difficulties  and  Aids  in  Correlation.  Chief 
among  the  difficulties  of  correlating  subject-matter  which  has 
become  differentiated  into  subjects  is  the  fact  that  what  may  be 
a  sequence  in  one  is  not  necessarily  a  sequence  in  the  other. 
For  example,  a  certain  high  school  wood  shop  and  drafting 
department  decided  to  correlate  their  work.  It.  was  decided 
that  the  drafting  room  should  make  up  the  working  drawings 
for  the  wood  shop.  The  first  problem  in  the  wood  shop  was 
a  piece  of  furniture — the  boys  had  had  grammar  school  wood- 
work and  pencil  drawing.  This  proved  a  satisfactory  shop 
problem  but  as  a  drafting  problem  for  first  work  in  inking 
it  was  entirely  too  difficult.  Usually,  in  such  cases,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  a  correlation  by  slight  modification  of  procedure 
in  the  drafting  room.  Pupils  may  be  given  preliminary  ink- 
ing problems  of  a  simpler  kind.  The  outlines  for  woodwork 
and  mechanical  drawing,  Correlated  Courses,  are  correlated 
in  this  way.  Certain  exercise  problems  in  drawing  are  utilized 
to  bridge  such  gaps  and  thus  permit  each  of  the  correlated 
subjects  to  have  a  logical  sequence  of  its  own.  Again,  in 
another  school  mechanical  drawing,  as  to  development  and 
intersections,    was    taught   wholly    as    abstract    or   unrelated 


CORRELATION  AND  ASSOCIATION 121 

material  in  the  freshman  year.  In  the  sophomore  year  in 
sheet  metal,  applications  of  these  same  principles  occurred. 
Not  a  few  boys  failed  to  see  any  relation  between  the  fresh- 
man drawing  and  the  sheet  metal  application  and  had  to  be 
taught  the  application  as  new  matter.  A  wise  teacher  of 
drawing  will  take  time  to  make  such  connections  in  the  minds 
of  the  boys  by  pointing  out  such  applications  and  by  the  in- 
troduction of  not  a  few  sheet  metal  drafting  problems  as  a 
part  of  the  work  in  drawing. 

7.  Summary.  Correlation  is  the  native  state  of  mind 
of  little  children  and  they  must  be  taught  in  terms  of  closely 
related  subject-matter  and  experiences.  As  they  grow  older 
differentiations  are  to  be  emphasized  until  we  have  arith- 
metic, language,  construction  work,  etc. — each  with  subjects 
matter  of  its  own,  with  a  right  to  its  own  organization  in 
the  main. 

Correlation  is  but  another  name  for  association  and  what 
has  been  said  of  association  and  the  law  of  association  applies 
with  equal  force  to  correlation. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  we  may  speak  of  correlations 
as  of  two  kinds  or  types— immediate  and  remote.  In  remote 
correlations  the  connections  are  made  in  the  mind  of  the  child 
rather  than  in  time.  In  immediate  correlations  the  desired 
connections  are  accomplished  in  time  as  well  as  in  the  mind. 

Certain  advantages  accrue  thru  the  correlation  of  one  sub- 
ject with  another;  also  certain  disadvantages.  The  problem 
of  generalized  versus  specialized  training  is  but  one  aspect 
of  the  problem  of  correlation  or  association.  It  is  one  of 
those  educational  problems  which  do  not  admit  of  an  ideal 
solution.  The  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  lay  as  broad  a 
foundation  thru  correlations  and  associations  as  time  and 
economic  conditions  will  permit,  and  then  upon  this  to  erect 
a  specialized  structure  made  so  by  eliminating  all  correlations 


122         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

or  associations  or  interests  which  do  not  lend  themselves  to 
the  purpose  in  hand. 

Chief  among  the  practical  difficulties  which  interfere  with 
close  correlation  of  one  educational  subject  with  another  is 
the  fact  that  sequence  in  one  rarely  corresponds  with  sequence 
in  another.  Frequently,  however,  a  thoroly  satisfactory  cor- 
relation can  be  made  if  each  instructor  will  make  cer- 
tain adjustments  in  the  sequence  of  his  subject-matter  to 
accommodate  that  of  the  other. 


Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike :    Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapter  VIII. 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapters  VIII,  IX,  XII. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  State  the  law  of  association  as  it  applies  to  impressions;  to 
memory;  to  habits  involving  muscular  reactions. 

2.  From  observations  made,  enumerate  evident  regard  for  the 
law  of  association  in  some  manual  arts  teaching. 

3.  Describe  any  evident  violation  of  the  law  if  you  have  seen 
such  and  suggest  a  remedy. 

4.  Concentration,  repetition,  and  recall  are  means  used  to  fix 
connections.  State  how  the  teacher  observed  was  securing 
these. 

5.  Why  have  a  child  build  a  piece  of  woodwork  which  inter- 
ests him  rather  than  one  which  does  not? 

6.  Which  is  better  pedagogically,  a  taboret  with  eight  joints 
of  the  same  kind  or  a  joint  disconnected  from  any  object 
of  interest  repeated  eight  times,  where  the  acquiring 
of  proper  technic  and  skill  are  the  aims  of  the  teacher. 
Would  you  modify  your  answer  were  one  of  the  following 
specified :  in  lower  grades,  in  upper  grades,  in  high  school, 
in  university? 

7.  Why  have  recitations  upon  assigned  reading  bearing  upon 
the  work  being  done  in  the  shop? 

8.  What  is  gained  and  what  lost,  if  anything,  by  having 
mechanical  drawings  precede  the  making  of  projects? 

9.  When  manual  arts  is  given  as  a  means  of  teaching  other 
subjects  as  history,  etc,  what  is  gained  and  what  is  lost? 

10.  Practically  all  teachers  believe  in  correlation — correlation 
of  other  subjects  with  their  own.  It  is  said  that  every 
subject  has  a  right  to  organization  as  a  subject  in  itself; 


CORRELATION  AND  ASSOCIATION 123 

what  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  possibility  of  correlation  if 
this  is  true? 

11.  As  manual  arts  teachers,  what  attitude  do  you  expect  to 
take  in  the  matter  of  correlating  your  subject  with  other 
subjects? 

12.  Give  an  example  of  correlation  in  manual  arts;  in  the  in- 
dustrial arts. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 

1.  The  Problem  of  Discipline  Stated.  Whether  the  old 
conception  of  the  mind  as  a  bundle  of  faculties,  each  working 
independently  of  the  experiences  with  which  it  deals,  was 
merely  a  convenient  academic  solution  of  the  impossible  prob- 
lem of  any  one  mind's  encompassing  all  knowledge,  or  whether 
the  theorist  evolved  the  faculty  psychology  first,  and.  pedagogy 
made  use  of  it  because  of  its  convenience,  is  a  matter  of  small 
moment.  What  is  of  importance  to  the  teacher  of  manual 
and  industrial  arts  in  this  connection  is  that  he  have  a  clear 
conception  of  the  problem  of  discipline  as  an  educational 
means  or  an  end. 

Since  the  time  of  Locke,  educational  practice  has  in  the 
main  justified  itself  upon  the  ground  of  discipline,  the  older 
view  being  that  it  mattered  not  what  the  subject-matter  might 
be,  discipline  of  mind  in  one  thing  necessarily  meant  discipline 
of  mind  in  other  things.  For  example,  the  study  of  Latin 
was  supposed  to  strengthen  the  memory  so  that  a  good  Latin 
student  would  be  of  necessity  a  better  salesman  of  codfish  in 
which  a  memory  of  faces  is  involved.  Attending  church  twice 
on  Sunday  was  thought  to  be  a  discipline  which  would  carry 
over  on  Monday  and  make  a  man  honest  in  his  business,  even 
as  he  was  honest  on  Sunday  in  his  church  service.  Making 
boys  accurate  and  neat  in  manual  training  was  to  make  boys 
accurate  and  neat  in  personal  matters,  etc.,  etc. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  Chapter  VIII  about  the  diffi- 
culties confronting  education  in  its  efforts  to  correlate  or  en- 
compass all  knowledge  and  all  useful  habits  of  muscle  and 
mind,  and  at  the  same  time  differentiate  and  specialize  so 
that  each  thing  considered  might  be  worth  while,  such  a  doc- 
trine of  transference  of  habits  of  mind  and  muscle,  irrespective 

124 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 125 

of  associations  or  connections,  provided  a  happy  solution. 
According  to  this  doctrine  it  mattered  little  what  was  taught 
in  school  provided  it  was  taught  so  as  to  develop  some  faculty 
of  the  mind,  as  memory,  will,  etc.  Even  manual  training  in 
its  earlier  days  was  guaranteed  to  make  a  boy  honest,  accur- 
ate, neat,  etc.,  in  all  things,  irrespective  of  connections,  once 
a  boy  passed  thru  these  experiences  in  his  manual  training.  A 
boy  made  neat  in  his  woodwork  was  supposed  of  necessity  to 
become  neat  in  his  personal  appearance,  etc.,  etc. 

Unfortunately  for  the  peace  of  mind  of  those  who  think, 
psychological  and  pedagogical  investigations  and  experiments 
failed  to  sustain  any  such  doctrine  in  its  entirety. 

2.  Early  Revised  View.  Upon  investigation  and  experi- 
mentation it  was  thought  that  the  development  of  habits  of 
memory,  will,  honesty,  accuracy,  skill,  etc.,  in  any  one  direc- 
tion was  but  slight  guarantee  that  such  habits  would  be  found 
in  other  directions.  The  conclusion  was  drawn  by  certain 
experimentors  that  general  training  was  an  impossible  thing 
and  that  only  specific  end  was  of  any  value.  Even  if  we 
thought  we  were  training  the  memory  thru  Latin,  in  fact  we 
were  only  training  it  in  ability  to  remember  Latin.  That  if 
we  wished  to  develop  memory  in  any  other  line  we  could  do 
so  only  by  dealing  specifically  with  that  particular  line. 

Naturally,  this  view  presented  a  difficult  problem  to  the 
teacher.  A  limited  time  for  the  education  of  a  youth,  a  world 
wide  racial  knowledge  and  experience  with  which  to  acquaint 
him,  and  then  to  be  informed  that  only  as  each  pupil  was 
habituated  to  each  highly  differentiated  experience,  was  that 
experience  of  value !  If  a  boy  was  to  form  habits  of  honesty, 
accuracy,  or  neatness,  he  could  not  be  expected  to  do  so 
except  as  he  was  taught  such  habits  in  each  and  every  line 
of  endeavor.  If  a  child  was  to  be  taught  arithmetic,  it  would 
have  to  be  arithmetic  of  the  baker,  the  broker,  or  the  seam- 
stress.   There  could  be  no  general  education. 


126         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

If  the  older  view  of  habit  transference  without  connections 
was  false,  and  it  is  so  recognized,  the  newer  view  led  to  some 
extreme  generalizations  or  implications  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Common  observations  are  sufficient  to  indicate  that  cer- 
tain habits  seem  to  function  in  subject-matter  and  method 
greatly  different  from  that  with  which  these  habits  originally 
were  formed.  A  boy  who  has  had  a  good  course  in  woodwork 
generally  does  better  work  the  next  semester  when  he  takes 
up  forging,  altho  the  subject-matter  is  quite  different.  A  boy 
who  has  had  a  good  course  in  forging  the  first  semester  does 
better  work  in  woodwork  the  second  semester  An  engineer- 
ing upper  classman  or  graduate,  as  a  general  thing,  keeps  a 
neater  note-book  than  upper  classmen  in  other  schools  not 
demanding  painstaking  care  in  note-book  work,  etc. 

3.  The  Present  View  of  Generalized  and  Specialized 
Training.  It  is  generally  recognized  today  that  while  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  a  generalized  habit,  specialized  habits  of 
mind  and  muscle  are  so  intricately  interwoven  in  their  con- 
nections that  oftentimes  it  is  difficult  to  detect  any  connec- 
tions. It  is  out  of  this  inability  that  the  doctrine  of  generalized 
habits  has  grown. 

The  law  of  association  should  give  us  the  explanation  of,  or 
the  answer  to,  the  question  of  transference  of  habit.  The 
likelihood  that  one  thought  or  act  will  call  up  another  thought 
or  act  is  in  proportion  to  the  frequency,  recency,  intensity 
and  resulting  satisfaction  of  previous  connection,  other  things 
being  equal.  No  connection,  then  no  likelihood  of  recall. 
An  examination  of  any  real  or  seeming  transference  of  habit 
will  show  that  such  connections  are  due  to : 

1.  Similarity  of  subject-matter  of  specific  experiences. 

2.  Similarity  of  method  of  procedure. 

3.  The  extent  to  which  such  experiences  have  been  made 
to  take  the  form  of  ideals,  or  of  rules,  or  of  principles  which 
serve  as  connecting  links. 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 127 

The  boy  who  has  had  woodwork  the  first  semester  is  bet- 
ter prepared  to  do  metalwork  the  second  semester,  among 
other  things,  because  habits  of  exact  measurement  in  wood- 
work and  metalwork  are  not  unlike — similarity  of  method  of 
procedure.  Again,  a  boy  who  has  had  woodwork,  among 
other  things,  has  formed  a  habit,  probably,  of  systematic 
methods  of  attack  in  woodwork,  which  habit  has  been  dis- 
sociated from  woodwork  and  made  to  take  the  form  of  an 
ideal — not  systematic  method  of  procedure  a  desirable  thing 
in  woodwork  alone,  but  system  a  desirable  thing  always. 

A  boy  who  is  given  habits  of  neatness,  accuracy  or  honesty 
in  the  making  of  a  bird  house  is  that  much  better  for  the 
experience.  School  time,  however,  is  too  short  to  teach 
neatness,  accuracy,  honesty,  in  the  one  thousand  and  one 
things  in  which  the  elements  are  necessary.  While  "empiri- 
cal concretes,"  the  specific  experiences,  "and  not  abstractions 
give  the  basis  for  association"  (Judd),  it  will  readily  appear 
that  attention,  devoted  to  associations  wholly  within  that 
experience  and  no  attempt  made  to  connect  certain  elements, 
dissociated  thru  abstractions,  with  other  situations  is  a  short 
sighted  policy.  That  is,  the  correct  way  to  teach  neatness, 
accuracy,  honesty,  etc.,  is  to  teach  them,  for  example,  as 
necessary  factors  in  making  a  sled,  a  taboret,  etc.  However, 
this  should  not  be  the  sole  end  of  education  so  far  as  these 
elements  are  concerned.  After  a  boy  has  had  a  number  of 
such  experiences,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  good  teaching  to 
get  him  to  dissociate  or  abstract  these  elements  and  hold  them 
in  mind  as  things  always  to  be  desired  in  all  situations.  This 
abstracting  process  approximates  pretty  closely  the  old  idea 
of  generalized  training — the  essential  difference,  however,  lies 
in  the  fact  that  only  as  such  associations  are  made  between 
empirical  concretes  and  ideals  and  between  these  ideals  and 
specific  application  is  it  possible  to  have  a  so-called  transfer. 

If  by  discipline  we  mean  this  possible  connecting  up  of  one 


128        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

thing,  idea,  or  experience  to  another  thing,  idea,  or  experience 
by  means  of  ideals  and  principles,  then  discipline  is  not  only 
possible  but  is  the  main  justification  for  most  of  our  particu- 
lars of  subject-matter  in  general  education.  For  example, 
woodwork  is  a  very  common  requirement  in  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  in  nearly  all  progressive  schools.  Why  wood- 
work, in  preference  to  any  other  kind  of  industrial  activity? 
Certainly,  only  a  few  boys  out  of  any  class  are  to  become 
workers  in  wood.  For  these  few,  of  course,  similarity  of 
subject-matter  is  an  essential  argument  for  this  particular 
experience.  Rather  do  we  judge  the"  highly  specific  experi- 
ence, such  as  cabinet  making  or  the  still  broader  experience 
— woodwork — upon  the  ground  of  discipline  as  just  inter- 
preted. When  we  think  of  this  experience  not  as  woodwork 
but  as  industrial  experience  as  differentiated  from  the  profes- 
sional, the  agricultural,  etc.,  then  similarity  of  subject-matter 
and  similarity  of  method  procedure  enter  in  as  very  essential 
arguments  in  justification. 

4.  Effect  of  Present  View  of  Discipline  Upon  Subject- 
Matter  and  Method — Logical  Basis.  A  discussion  of  the 
basis  of  subject-matter  belongs  primarily  to  organization  of 
manual  arts  rather  than  to  teaching  manual  arts.  It  seems 
advisable,  however,  in  view  of  the  discussion  just  preceding, 
to  indicate  briefly  such  basis,  especially  since  such  bases  are 
pre-supposed  in  all  of  the  type  form  lessons  referred  to  in 
this  book.  First,  since  expressional  or  illustrative  manual 
arts  is  a  matter  of  assisting  in  the  clarification  of  ideas  of 
other  subject-matter,  as  geography,  history,  etc.,  it  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  subject-matter  of  its  own.  Certainly,  its  or- 
ganization will  be  subordinated  to  that  of  subjects  it  seeks  to 
serve.  Examine  the  suggested  outlines  for  expressional  and 
illustrative  manual  arts,  Appendix  II.  With  technical  manual 
arts  and  industrial  arts,  however,  the  situation  is  different. 
Technical  manual  arts  and  industrial  arts,  being  ends  in  them- 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 129 

selves,  more  essentially,  have  a  right  to  sequential  organiza- 
tion of  subject-matter  peculiarly  their  own. 

The  selection  of  subject-matter  and  method  of  procedure 
in  technical  manual  arts  and  industrial  arts  will  be  governed  by 

1.  The  extent  of  similarity  which  will  exist  between  such 
subject-matter  selected  for  school  purposes,  and  subject- 
matter  the  pupil  will  deal  with  after  leaving  school. 

2.  The  extent  of  similarity  which  will  exist  between  method 
of  procedure  in  such  subject-matter  selected  for  school 
purposes  and  methods  of  procedure  in  subject-matter 
pupils  will  deal  with  after  leaving  school. 

3.  The  extent  to  which  such  subject-matter  can  be  gener- 
alized— put  into  the  form  of  principles,  or  made  to  take 
the  form  of  a  science.  The  extent  to  which  specific  atti- 
tudes, or  attitudes  formed  in  connection  with  specific 
experiences,,  can  be  made  to  dissociate  themselves  and 
take  the  form  of  ideals. 

Education  in  general  should  begin  as  at  the  center  of 
Fig  14-a  or  14-b  working  outward  as  the  development  of  the 
child's  nature  permits. 

Where  children  leave  school  at  an  early  age  and  enter  upon 
trade  or  industrial  work,  Fig  14-c  and  d  chart  educational 
connections  which  should  be  made  available.  To  do  less  is 
to  lay  our  boasted  public  school  system  open  to  the  charge  of 
inequality  of  opportunity  for  acquiring  an  education. 

5.  Modification  of  Choice  of  Subject-matter  Due  to 
Child  Nature — Psychological  Basis.  If  society  determines 
what  shall  be  taught,  child  nature  must  determine  how  and 
when  it  shall  be  taught.  Children  are  not  born  logically 
minded  and  any  logical  arrangement  of  subject-matter  and 
method  must  accommodate  itself  in  its  beginnings  to  child 
nature.  Boys  of  high  school  age  are  intensely  interested  in 
wood-turning;  there  is  little  place  in  the  work  of  the  world 
for  wood-turners.     Manual  training  men,  a   few  years  ago, 


130 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


decided  to  throw  out  wood-turning  for  this  latter  reason.  It 
is  highly  probable  that  wood-turning  can  justify  itself  on 
grounds  of  creating  an  attitude  of  interest  and  joy  in  work 
with  machines  that  will  make  it  well  worth  while,  even  tho 


Fig.  19.    Training  Room  for  Apprentices,  Lakeside  Press,  Chicago. 

few  boys  ever  can  become  professional  wood-turners.     The 
same  thing  is  true  of  furniture  construction. 

Again,  similarity  of  subject-matter  and  similarity  of  method 
of  procedure  must  accommodate  themselves  to  an  organiza- 
tion suited  to  the  impartation  of  new  ideas  and  new  experi- 
ences. Were  experiences  in  school  to  be  made  identical  in 
subject-matter  and  method  to  those  of  the  real  world,  there 
would  be  no  need  for  schools.  Instead  of  reproducing  the 
entire  real  world  condition  in  any  one  industry,  such  as  car- 
pentry or  cabinet  making,  certain  typical  processes  and  blocks 
of  subject-matter  will  be  selected  and  utilized  in  so  far  as 
they  lend  themselves  to  progressive  learning  and  doing.  A 
complete  vocational  educational  experience,  will,  of  course, 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 


131 


involve  experience  under  actual  vocational  conditions,  follow- 
ing or  accompanying  such  training  or  instructional  blocks  of 
experiences.  For  example,  large  printing  houses  have  every 
facility  for  training  boys  to  become  printers  thru  placing  them 


Fig.  20.    Training  Room  for  Apprentices,  Lakeside  Press,  Chicago. 


in  press-rooms  and  composing  rooms  where  real  life  condi- 
tions obtain.  They  do  place  them  there  one-half  time  but  not 
primarily  for  instructional  purposes.  The  instruction  of  these 
boys  is  given  in  an  especially  fitted  room  having  equipment 
for  printing  at  one  end  and  school  desks  at  the  other  end, 
Figs.  19  and  20.  Likewise,  large  manufacturing  plants  differ- 
entiate instruction  from  production,  Figs.  21  and  22,  giving 
part  time  to  instruction  and  part  to  production. 

In  the  smaller  communities  where  limited  numbers  make 
a  modified  form  of  organization  for  instruction  necessary,  or 
in  larger  communities  where  trades  and  industry  are  of  such 


132 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


a  character  that  group  instruction  is  not  possible  or  advisable, 
instruction  will  have  to  be  individual  and  on  the  job.  The 
principles  of  organization  and  classification  of  teachable  con- 
tent and  its  arrangement  for  effective  instruction  will  not 
differ.     Certain  related  work,  such  as  mathematics,  drawing, 


Fig.  21.    Shop  Apprentices  in  Class  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Schenectady 
Works.    Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 


science  not  infrequently  may  still  be  given  in  classes  thru 
part-time  instruction  even  where  the  manipulative  processes 
must  be  taught  on  the  job  thru  the  instructional  foreman. 

6.  Summary.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of 
the  doctrine  of  discipline,  it  is  important  that  the  teacher  of 
manual  and  industrial  arts  have  a  clear  conception  of  the 
problem  of  discipline  as  an  educational  means  or  as  an  end. 
Since  the  time  of  Locke,  educational  practice  has  in  the  main 
justified  itself  upon  the  ground  of  discipline,  the  older  view 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 


133 


being  that  it  mattered  not  what  the  subject  might  be,  discipline 
of  mind  in  one  thing  necessarily  meant  discipline  of 
mind  in  other  things.  In  view  of  the  difficulties  confront- 
ing education  in  its  efforts  to  correlate  or  encompass  all 
knowledge  and  all  useful  habits,  and  at  the  same  time  differ- 


Fig.  22.    Training  Room  for  Machinist  Apprentices,  First  Year.    Cour- 
tesy of  General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

entiate  and  specialize  so  that  each  thing  considered  might 
be  worth  while,  such  a  doctrine  of  transference  of  habits, 
irrespective  of  connections  or  associations,  provided  a  happy 
solution.  Unfortunately,  psychological  and  pedagogical  ex- 
periences failed  to  sustain  any  such  doctrine  in  its  entirety. 

Investigation  and  experimentation  failed  to  sustain  the 
original  belief  and  out  of  this  arose  a  belief  that  only  specific 
training  or  training  toward  a  highly  specific  end  was  of  any 
value.     This  new  view  presented  a  difficult  problem  to  the 


134        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


teacher,  especially  in  general  education  where  he  did  not 
know  the  specific  future  of  any  of  his  pupils.  If  the  older 
view  claimed  too  much  for  itself,  the  newer  view  led  some 
to  extreme  generalizations  in  the  opposite  direction. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
generalized  habit  in  the  sense  that  training  in  one  activity  will 
carry  over  into  another  wholly  unrelated  activity.  On  the 
other  hand,  specialized  habits  are  so  intricately  interwoven 
that  it  is  often  difficult  to  detect  any  connections.  Out  of  this 
inability  has  come  the  doctrine  of  transference  without  connec- 
tions. The  law  of  association  provides  the  answer  to  the 
question  as  to  transference.  No  connections,  then  no  trans- 
ference. Such  connections  may  be  made  thru  similarity  of 
subject-matter,  similarity  of  method  of  procedure,  thru  gen- 
eralization or  idealization.  Connections  of  the  third  type 
are  so  very  economical  of  time  that  education  of  the  past  has 
confined  its  attention  to  this  type  very  largely.  It  is  to  this 
type  the  psychologist  of  today,  who  advocates  transference, 
refers.  "Transference  takes  place  whenever  generalization 
is  reached."  (Judd.)  If  by  transference  we  mean  this  pos- 
sible connecting  up  of  one  idea  or  experience  with  another 
idea  or  experience  thru  generalization  or  idealization,  then 
discipline  is  not  only  possible  but  is  the  main  justification  for 
most  of  the  particulars  of  subject-matter  in  general  education. 

The  selection  of  subject-matter  of  technical  manual  arts  and 
industrial  arts  will  be  governed,  as  is  all  other  subject-matter 
and  method,  by  similarity  of  subject-matter,  similarity  of 
method  of  procedure  of  school  experiences  to  that  of  probable 
future  life  experiences,  and  extent  of  generalization  and 
idealization  possible.  Education  in  general,  then,  will  begin 
with  such  subject-matter  as  is  common  to  all  activities,  gradu- 
ally differentiating  into  special  lines  to  meet  special  needs. 

The  above  basis  for  choice  of  subject-matter  is  social,  eco- 
nomic, and  logical.     Children,  however,  are  not  born  logically 


DOCTRINE  OF  DISCIPLINE 135 

minded,  and  any  logical  arrangement  of  subject-matter  and 
method  will  have  to  accommodate  itself  in  its  beginnings  to 
child  nature.  Also,  considerations  of  similarity  of  subject- 
matter  and  similarity  of  methods  of  procedure  must  accom- 
modate themselves  to  an  organization  suited  to  the  imparta- 
tion  of  new  ideas  and  new  experiences — in  other  words,  to 
considerations  of  instruction. 


Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapter  XV. 

Judd:    Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,  Chapter  XVII. 

Bennett:     The  Manual  Arts,  Chapter  V. 

Colvin:     The  Learning  Process,  Chapters  XIV-XVI. 


Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  is  meant  when  a  subject  is  said  to  be  justified  as  a 
part  of  the  course  of  study  on  account  of  its  disciplinary 
value  ? 

2.  What  is  the  view  of  those  who  uphold  what  is  known  as 
the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline? 

3.  Have  you  in  your  reading  ever  observed  any  argument  for 
manual  arts  seemingly  based  upon  this  doctrine? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  may  improvement  in  one  special 
power  assist  in  the  improvement  of  another  or  others  ? 

5.  If  "mental  capacity  is  highly  specialized",  upon  what 
grounds  do  you  justify  a  course  of  study  which  requires 
all  boys  of  seventh  and  eighth  grades  to  take  woodwork  in 
a  city  school  system? 

6.  Consulting  the  chart,  Fig.  14b,  would  you  say  that  a  city 
would  do  better  by  its  boys  if  it  were  to  offer  subjects 
other  than  woodwork,  such  as  metalwork,  printing,  agricul- 
ture, etc.? 

7.  In  a  small  city,  where  the  necessary  money  cannot  be  pro- 
vided for  these  various  options  and  only  woodwork  can  be 
provided,  upon  what  grounds  can  you  justify  woodwork 
for  all  boys? 

8.  Will  teaching  a  boy  accuracy,  neatness,  truthfulness,  etc., 
in  the  making  of  a  sled  cause  him  to  be  more  accurate, 
neater,  and  more  truthful  in  other  matters?  If  an  affirma- 
tive answer  is  given,  explain  the  conditions  under  which 
the  transfer  is  brought  about  and  the  relative  likelihood  of 
transfer  or  amount  of  transfer. 

9.  Consulting  the  charts,  Fig.  14  a,  b,  c  and  d,  again,  explain 
how  you  would  justify:  1.  General  Education.  2.  Manual 
Arts.  3.  Highly  Specialized  or  Vocational  Education. 


CHAPTER  X 

TYPES  OF  THINKING  INHERENT  IN  THE  MANUAL  AND 
INDUSTRIAL    ARTS 

1.  Introduction.  Psychologists  have  differentiated 
thinking  into  two  types — associative  and  selective.  Authors 
of  pedagogical  literature  have  been  content  to  accept  this 
differentiation  with  the  result  that  two  distinct  schools  of 
thought  as  to  educational  method  and  practice  have  arisen. 
The  first  is  composed  of  men  who  seek  to  stress  the  develop- 
ment of  initiative,  originality,  and  a  resourceful  attitude  in 
pupils,  minimizing  authority  and  benefits  which  accrue  from 
race  experience.  The  second  is  composed  of  men  who  stress 
authority  and  race  experience  and  make  little  effort  to 
develop  initiative  and  originality.  A  rather  voluminous  liter- 
ature has  been  the  result  of  the  controversy  carried  on  by 
members  of  these  two  schools  of  thought.  Much  of  this 
literature  consists  of  rather  vigorous  criticism  of  the  other's 
point  of  view.  Manual  arts  and  industrial  arts  methods,  and 
the  theory  upon  which  the  methods  have  been  based,  have  had 
no  small  amount  of  such  criticism.  In  order  to  properly  eval- 
uate such  methods,  which  methods  are  presented  in  the  chap- 
ter following,  effort  will  be  made  in  this  chapter  to  evaluate 
the  types  of  thinking  which  are  common  and  which  furnish 
the  basis  for  theory  as  to  method  and  aims. 

The  educative  process  is  concerned  chiefly  with  associa- 
tive thinking  and  with  selective  thinking  of  certain  well-de- 
fined types.  One  who  has  followed  the  discussions  which 
have  taken  place  between  these  two  schools  of  thought  is 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  much  of  the  misunderstanding  and 
lack  of  respect  for  each  other's  view  is  due  to  the  assumption 
of  extreme  positions.  If,  instead  of  making  use  of  an  evalu- 
ating unit  or  interval  which  divides  the  subject  into  two  parts, 

136 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 137 

we  were  to  take  a  smaller  unit,  one  that  would  give  us  three 
parts,  Fig.  23,  we  should  find  it  easier  to  analyze  and  orient 
our  positions  with  greater  success.  In  no  case  is  an  experi- 
ence one  of  associative  thinking  solely,  or  of  selective  think- 
ing solely.  In  every  case  of  associative  thinking  there  is 
some  selective  thinking  and  in  every  case  of  selective  think- 
ing there  must  be  associative  thinking;  it  is  a  question  of 
degree.  For  this  reason  we  are  at  liberty  to  select  any  unit 
or  interval  of  measurement  we  may  deem  advisable. 

2.  Three  Types  of  Thinking.  Instead  of  discussing  the 
traditional  two  types,  associative  and  selective,  let  us  consider 
what  we  may  call  common  associative,  select-associative,  and 
selective.  The  term  select-associative  has  been  introduced  as 
a  means  of  designating  a  type  of  thinking  which  is  more 
selective  than  common  associative  and  more  dependent  upon 
association  than  is  selective.  It  is  a  type  of  thinking  of  great 
importance  to  the  technical  manual  and  industrial  arts. 

Common  associative  thinking  is  that  kind  of  thinking  which 
finds  expression  when  two  women  with  nothing  in  particular 
to  do  meet  and  carry  on  conversation  over  the  back-yard  fence, 
that  kind  of  thinking  which  finds  expression  when  men  meet 
about  the  fire  in  the  village  store  with  nothing  in  particular  to 
do  but  pass  the  time  away.  Such  thinking  is  "more  or  less 
rambling,  with  no  central  idea — a  mass  of  detail  related  in 
time  rather  than  in  reason."  It  is  as  if  one  were  to  sit  by  the 
side  of  a  stream  watching  the  various  forms  of  floating  ma- 
terials pass  by  without  any  attempt  ever  to  arrest  any  of 
them  for  a  useful  purpose  of  some  kind  or  another.  Suppose, 
however,  that  one  were  a  fisherman,  whose  comfort  in  winter 
depended  upon  his  getting  from  those  passing  floating  materials 
his  winter  supply  of  wood.  As  the  various  materials  pass  by, 
he  does  not  idly  let  them  all  pass  but  selects  therefrom  those 
which  best  serve  his  purpose.  This  latter  typifies  what  takes 
place  in  selective  thinking  or  reasoning.     As  the  stream  of 


138        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

consciousness  flows  on  thru  common  associations,  the  mind, 
as  it  were,  selects  therefrom  those  things  which  serve  the 
purpose  under  consideration.  The  fisherman  does  not  deter- 
mine what  shall  pass  by;  neither  does  the  mind  determine 
what  thoughts  or  ideas  shall  pass  by  in  the  stream  of  con- 


Common 
Associative  or 
Random  Thinking 


Type  I  Type  Z  Type  3 

Fig.  23.     Three  Types  of  Thinking. 


sciousness.  What  thought  or  action  shall  follow  another 
thought  or  action  is  determined  by  the  frequency,  recency, 
intensity,  and  resulting  satisfaction  of  previous  associations, 
other  things  being  equal.  If  the  mind  does  not  arbitrarily 
determine  what  shall  pass  by,  it  certainly  does  have  the  power 
to  choose  from  among  those  things  as  they  pass  by.  It  is 
this  ability  to  choose  and  to  postpone  reactions  which  dis- 
tinguishes man  from  other  animals. 

Now,  that  we  have  examined  the  two  extreme  types  of 
thinking,  we  ought  to  be  prepared  to  orient  the  middle  type, 
select-associative,  Fig.  23,  without  difficulty.  Not  all  asso- 
ciative thinking  is  of  such  random  character  as  that  of  the 
women  engaged  in  conversation  over  the  back-yard  fence  or 
of  the  idle  men  about  the  fire  of  the  village  store.  Neither, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  the  agent  or  individual  be  as  free 
to  make  selections  and  choose  his  own  terms  as  was  the  fisher 
beside  the  river.  For  example,  it  may  be  a  student  in  tech- 
nical manual  arts  or  an  industrial  arts  course  wherein  he  has 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 139 

been  taught  and  shown  just  how  to  make  a  joint  of  a  certain 
type,  or  some  other  technical  operation  wherein  the  teacher 
has  made  use  of  conventional  methods  of  procedure  in  his 
instruction  and  his  demonstration.  The  type  of  thinking  the 
student  engages  in  when  he  tries  to  execute  instructions  in 
the  making  of  the  project  is  not  to  be  classed  as  random; 
there  is  a  definite  goal  toward  which  the  student  is  working. 
Neither  can  it  be  classed  as  selective  in  the  sense  that  the 
student  is  a  free  agent  to  work  out  his  problem  as  he  likes. 
It  is  a  type  of  thinking  we  have  chosen  to  call  select-associa- 
tive^— selective  in  that  there  is  a  definite  end  in  mind  upon 
the  part  of  the  student  in  view  of  which  he  makes  selection 
of  favorable  ideas  as  they  pass  thru  consciousness  by  associa- 
tion, associative  in  that  the  goal  and  the  means  are  set  by 
society  and  the  race  thru  the  teacher.  The  chief  effort  of 
the  boy  in  his  selection  is  one  of  determining  thru  recall  the 
proper  means  or  method  of  procedure.  The  sample  we  get 
by  placing  our  measuring  unit  at  this  middle  position,  Fig.  23, 
is  classed  as  associative  in  pedagogical  writings.  The  reader 
will  do  well  to  remember,  however,  that  it  has  selective  ele- 
ments but  that  those  selective  elements  are  selective  on  the 
part  of  the  race  and  not  the  boy;  that  the  boy  confines  his 
effort  to  thinking  them  over  and  acting  them  out  thru  asso- 
ciation. 

3.  Evaluation  of  Types  of  Thinking.  The  first  type, 
random  thinking,  may  be  dismissed  from  further  considera- 
tion by  the  statement  that  it  finds  a  place  in  the  educative 
process  thru  necessity  rather  than  thru  choice.  It  is  the  basis 
for  the  second  and  the  third  types.  Being  instinctive,  our 
chief  concern  is  one  of  direction  rather  than  encouragement. 
When  we  give  it  direction  it  then  becomes  type  two  and  three. 
It  is  given  a  place  in  our  discussion  because  it  is  a  distinct 
type  and  one  which  often  is  confused  with  type  three  as  to 
educational  significance.    This  first  type  is  not  regarded  highly 


140         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

in  the  world's  work.  Being  the  most  common,  the  least 
economical,  and  requiring  as  it  does  no  educational  invest- 
ment, it  is  the  least  paid.  It  is  the  chief  mental  characteristic 
of  the  unskilled  labor  class.  Type  two  is  not  so  common  as 
type  one;  its  rewards  are  correspondingly  greater.  The  re- 
sults it  accomplishes  are  of  greater  value  to  society.  It  is  the 
chief  mental  characteristic  of  the  skilled  labor  class.  The 
greatest  rewards  are  reserved  for  the  third  type;  this  is  the 
chief  mental  characteristic  of  the  inventor  or  director  class. 

This  stratification  of  society  into  the  common  associative 
thinking  class,  or  unskilled;  select-associative,  or  the  skilled; 
and  the  selective,  or  inventor,  or  director  class  is  a  social  ar- 
rangement or  racial  development  which  finds  an  exact  coun- 
terpart in  individual  development.  In  the  individual  there 
comes  first  unorganized  action  and  thought.  Out  of  this  spon- 
taneity comes  more  efficient  or  skilled  reactions,  because  they 
are  aided  thru  instruction  or  thru  teaching  of  such  associa- 
tions as  race  experience  has  found  helpful.  Third,  comes 
creative  effort  most  worth  while  because  it  is  based  upon  in- 
struction in  the  things  of  past  experience. 

Of  course  this  third  type  is  highly  to  be  desired  and  every 
effort  made  to  develop  it.  However,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  most  of  the  world's  work  is  done  by  type  number  two, 
and  that  it  is  not  only  not  possible  to  produce  any  very  large 
number  of  striking  examples  of  number  three  type,  but  that 
the  most  effective  training  for  number  three  type  requires 
a  certain  amount  of  elementary  experience  in  number  one  and 
number  two  as  preliminaries  for  number  three. 

4.  Instruction  on  the  Lower  and  the  Higher  Plane — 
Storage  of  Knowledge  and  Acquisition  of  Mechanical  Skill. 
When  pupils  are  required  to  comprehend  and  retain  facts  as 
an  aim;  when  skill  is  aimed  at  as  an  end  in  itself,  this,  Dr. 
Frank  McMurry  has  characterized  as  instruction  on  a  lower 
plane.     When  facts  are  to  be  comprehended  and  remembered 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 141 

as  means  not  ends;  when  efficiency  is  the  goal,  and  the  aim  is 
to  make  pupils  high  minded,  judicious,  forceful,  self-reliant, — 
this  he  calls  instruction  on  a  higher  plane. 

Quite  evidently  the  meaning  intended  to  be  conveyed  is  that 
of  the  two  justifications :  Justification  thru  similarity  of  sub- 
ject-matter and  similarity  of  method  of  procedure,  and  justi- 
fication thru  the  development  of  ideals  and  principles  and 
rules  that  may  serve  as  connecting  links  to  a  wider  range  of 
experience  than  the  little  specific  experiences  given  in  school ; 
this  latter  is  to  be  the  chief  justification.  By  instruction  on 
the  lower  plane  he  means  instruction  which  emphasizes  mere 
associative  thinking — emphasis  upon  what  to  do  and  how  to 
do  it  rather  than  why  a  thing  is  done  as  it  is.  By  instruction 
on  the  higher  plane  he  refers  to  that  type  of  instruction  which 
emphasizes  the  method  of  selective  or  purposive  thinking, 
initiative,  originality,  inventiveness,  not  of  the  teacher  but  of 
the  pupil.  When  a  boy  is  given  a  blueprint  and  told  just  how 
to  proceed  in  the  making  of  a  mechanical  drawing  copy  or 
a  tracing  of  this  blueprint, — this  type  of  instruction  he  would 
class  as  on  a  lower  plane.  The  associations  the  pupil  makes 
in  making  his  mechanical  drawing  copy  or  his  tracing  are 
those  the  teacher  has  made  for  him.  The  thinking  for  the 
boy  is  reproductive  rather  than  productive.  An  excellent 
copy  or  tracing  may  result  and  yet  the  boy  may  be  ignorant 
of  the  meaning  of  the  drawing  or  of  the  principles  in- 
volved in  its  construction  and  fail  to  dissociate  such  ideals 
as  neatness,  etc.  Not  so  with  the  teacher  who  designed  the 
project  and  made  the  original  tracing  and  blueprint.  The 
designing  of  the  project  necessitated  selection,  analysis,  reason- 
ing. Again,  a  workman  digging  a  foundation  for  a  house  has 
always  associated  "rock  encountered  in  excavating"  with  "throw 
it  out."  He  comes  upon  a  rock  which  is  so  large  it  cannot  be 
thrown  out  without  special  equipment  not  at  hand.  Analysis  of 
the  situation,  selection  of  the  favorable  ideas  which  pass  by  in 


142        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

associative  thinking  enable  him  to  associate  the  idea  of  the 
rock  almost  below  excavation  level  with  the  idea  of  digging 
around  it  and  letting  it  sink  a  little  lower  and  not  trying  to 
take  it  out,  and  a  new  solution  is  afforded. 

It  is  this  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  this  refusal  to  be 
non-plussed  by  all  situations  except  those  which  are  most 
habitual  that  Dr.  McMurry  considers  the  end  of  education. 

5.  The  Danger  in  Extreme  Emphasis  upon  Manual  and 
Industrial  Arts  as  a  Means  of  Developing  So-called  Gener- 
alized Habits  of  Reaction — The  Necessity  of  Associative 
Thinking  as  a  Preliminary  to  Selective  Thinking.  It  is 
quite  possible  for  one  to  deduce  from  argument  for  extreme 
emphasis  upon  manual  and  industrial  arts  as  a  means  of  devel- 
oping initiative,  resourcefulness,  etc.,  that  subject-matter  and 
conventional  method  of  procedure  are  of  no  moment.  Not 
infrequently,  educators  in  their  eagerness  to  point  out  the 
limitations  of  associative  thinking  and  the  advantages  of  selec- 
tive thinking  lead  young  teachers  to  conclude  that  associative 
thinking  in  its  entirety  is  to  be  avoided  as  an  undesirable 
thing  in  education. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  development  of  initiative,  origin- 
ality, resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  etc.,  are  themselves  means 
and  not  ends.  The  end  is  the  efficient  application  of  these 
ideals,  and  such  applications  imply  necessity  for  attention  to 
subject-matter  and  methods.  A  man  may  have  a  Ph.  D.,  a 
sign  that  he  is  considered  by  some  higher  institution  of  learn- 
ing as  possessed  of  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  and  still 
find  himself  utterly  non-plussed  in  the  presence  of  a  stalled 
automobile  engine  he  happens  to  be  driving,  while  a  very 
"ignorant"  mechanic  may  meet  the  situation  by  so  simple  an 
operation  as  removing  and  cleaning  a  spark  plug.  As  a 
counter  irritant  there  may  be  offered  Prof.  Thorndike's  rather 
extreme  opposite  view:  "Training  the  mind  means  the  de- 
velopment of  thousands  of  particular  independent  capacities, 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 143 

the  formation  of  countless  particular  habits,  for  the  working 
of  any  mental  capacity  depends  upon  the  concrete  data  with 
which  it  works."  (Principles  of  Teaching,  p.  248.)  Dr. 
Judd  states  the  case  for  associative  thinking  when  he  says, 
'  'Empirical  concretes  and  not  abstractions  give  the  basis  for 
associations."  Associations  in  turn  give  the  basis  for  selec- 
tive thinking.  Associative  thinking  is  an  absolute  prerequisite 
for  selective  thinking  and  most  of  the  world's  work  is  carried 
on  thru  this  rather  than  thru  high  selective.  The  fisherman 
by  the  river,  to  revert  to  our  original  illustration,  could  not 
pick  out  suitable  firewood  for  his  winter's  supply  did  not 
the  stream  carry  an  array  of  materials  past. 

6.  The  Danger  in  Extreme  Emphasis  Upon  Associative 
Thinking  to  the  Neglect  of  Selective.  If  teachers  of  tech- 
nical manual  arts  and  industrial  arts  need  to  be  warned  of 
dangers  in  extreme  emphasis  upon  one  or  the  other  of  the 
factors  mentioned  above,  observation  and  conversation  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  warning  should  be  one  against  ex- 
treme emphasis  upon  associative  rather  than  upon  selective 
thinking.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  problem  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  technical  manual  and  industrial  arts  teachers 
will  concern  themselves  very  largely  with  the  problem  of 
habituating  their  pupils  to  certain  lines  of  thought  and  action 
thru  associations  wherein  race  experience  and  conventional 
methods  of  procedure  play  a  large  part.  They  should  under- 
stand, however,  that  the  product  of  such  instruction  is  not 
of  the  highest  type.  They  should  know  that  many  of  the 
specific  experiences  they  give  their  pupils  may  easily  be  made 
to  take  the  form  of  generalizations  by  which  latter  means 
their  ability  to  meet  new  environment  or  new  situations  is 
made  possible.  A  student  taught  to  think  of  roof  framing, 
referring  to  our  past  illustration,  in  terms  of  principles  rather 
than  in  terms  of  certain  numbers  to  take  on  the  tongue  and 
blade  for  each  pitch  and  each  cut  of  each  member,  will  most 


144         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

certainly  be  better  able  to  meet  the  many  diverse  problems 
of  roof  framing  than  one  who  has  not  been  taught  to  generalize 
his  particulars  of  instruction. 

In  fact,  only  in  this  manner  can  such  a  student  meet  situa- 
tions which  are  new — situations  he  has  not  been  taught  to 
meet  specifically.  One  is  justified  in  entertaining  a  healthy 
skepticism  as  to  the  teaching  methods  and  ability  of  any 
manual  or  industrial  arts  teacher  who  prides  himself  on  never 
reading  the  literature  of  his  craft  or  who  feels  that  books 
possess  nothing  for  him.  Generalized  experiences  are  passed 
on  from  one  to  another  by  or  thru  words,  either  word  of 
mouth  or  the  printed  page,  largely  the  printed  page.  The 
teacher  who  never  reads  usually  never  thinks  in  terms  be- 
yond the  particular  associations  taught  him ;  he  seldom  gen- 
eralizes. His  pupils  consequently  receive  little  encourage- 
ment to  do  more.  Race  progress,  socially  and  economically, 
is  possible  only  thru  selective  thinking.  Even  our  select- 
associative  type  is  not  the  highest  type.  There  must  be  oppor- 
tunity for  the  third  type,  selective  thinking. 

7.  Harmonization  of  Conflicting  Aims  uvAssociative  and 
Selective  Thinking.  It  is  impossible  to  place  extreme  em- 
phasis upon  associative  and  selective  thinking  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  just  as  it  is  impossible  for  the  fisherman  to  let  all 
the  fire  and  other  woods  float  by  and  yet  take  out  some  for 
his  own  use.  For  example,  it  is  impossible,  as  has  been 
previously  stated,  to  teach  a  boy  just  how  to  make  a  mortise- 
and-tenon  joint  according  to  methods  race  experience  has  de- 
veloped and  at  the  same  time  have  him  discover  how  a  mor- 
tise-and-tenon  joint  is  to  be  made.  The  former  is  associative ; 
the  latter  selective.  The  former  is  instruction  on  a  lower 
plane;  the  latter  is  supposed  to  be  instruction  on  a  higher 
plane.  The  former  is  deductive;  the  latter  inductive.  The 
former  defeats  initiative,  the  latter  is  supposed  to  give  it 
exercise,  etc.    The  former  is  our  type  number  two ;  the  latter 


. TYPES  OF  THINKING 145 

is  supposed  to  be  number  three,  and  right  here  is  where 
trouble  often  comes.  It  is  more  likely  to  be  number  one 
rather  than  number  three  when  men  of  purely  academic  train- 
ing try  to  develop  creative  effort  in  technical  manual  or  in 
industrial  arts.  They  fail  to  recognize  that  instruction  must  pre- 
cede creative  effort  if  it  is  to  be  worth  while — if  it  is  to  be 
anything  more  than  spontaneity,  a  preliminary  to  instruction. 

How  then  can  we  teach  pupils  the  conventions  of  any  craft, 
give  them  the  benefit  of  what  the  race  has  discovered  and 
also  develop  initiative,  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  etc?  If 
we  cannot  tell  a  pupil  how  a  thing  is  to  be  done  and  at  the 
same  time  have  him  discover  how  it  is  to  be  done,  what  can 
we  do?  The  answer,  obviously,  is,  first,  arrange  the  experi- 
ences so  that  those  conventions  the  race  has  developed,  and 
which  children  could  not  discover  in  the  time  available,  will 
be  given  them  by  the  teacher  deductively  as  instruction.  Sec- 
ond, arrange  enough  groups  of  experiences  that  pupils  will  be 
encouraged  to  put  together  such  information  and  experiences 
in  new  combinations,  and  at  such  times  that  invention,  initia- 
tive, etc.,  may  be  encouraged  and  strengthened. 

In  seventh  grade  woodwork,  for  example,  teach  boys  proper 
methods  of  squaring-up  stock,  etc.,  by  instruction  and  demon- 
stration. If  this  type  of  instruction  is  criticized  as  on  a  lower 
plane,  as  not  calculated  to  develop  a  resourceful  attitude  of 
mind,  grant  that  it  is,  but  justify  it  in  your  own  mind  and  in 
your  practice  by  having  it  serve  as  the  instructional  part  of 
Froebel's  (1)  spontaneity,  (2)  instruction,  (3)  creative  ef- 
fort. Do  not,  however,  fail  to  intersperse  groups  which  will 
allow  pupils  to  modify  dimensions  and  design  projects  of  their 
own,  just  as  soon  as  instruction  and  skill  make  this  possible 
and  profitable.  We  cannot  accomplish  skill  and  intelligence 
at  one  and  the  same  time ;  we  can,  however,  alternate  the 
emphasis  and  thus  accomplish  a  result  that  best  makes  for 
progress.    Technical  manual  training  and  industrial  arts  must, 


146         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

as  far  as  conditions  permit,  strive  to  develop  the  qualities 
mentioned  by  Dr.  McMurry;  this  can  be  done  best  and  only 
thru  instruction  on  a  lower  plane  as  a  prerequisite  to  instruc- 
tion on  a  higher  plane.  Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish 
between  creative  effort  based  upon  instruction  and  spontaneity 
not  so  based.  Each  has  its  place  but  they  are  essentially 
different  stages  or  aspects  of  the  educational  process. 

The  inference  as  to  method  in  general,  then,  is  clear:  We 
are  to  pay  attention  to  the  empirical  concretes;  education  is 
to  be  based  upon  specific  concrete  experiences.  Out  of  these 
experiences  are  to  come  the  generalizations,  the  abstractions, 
the  rules,  the  theory,  the  ideals  which  shall  serve  to  connect 
these  specific,  concrete  experiences  with  other  specific,  con- 
crete experiences  not  otherwise  related.  Such  a  method  de- 
mands more  than  mere  generalization  and  abstraction;  it  de- 
mands application  of  these  to  new  situations  or  experiences. 
If  it  were  desired  to  produce  an  intelligent  carpentry  foreman, 
one  with  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  we  must  not  try  to  do 
this  by  having  him  disregard  the  subject-matter  of  carpentry. 
We  must  not  have  him  dwell  always  in  the  world  of  random 
experimentation  on  the  ground  that  in  such  a  world  he  is 
exercising  initiative  and  avoiding  associative  thinking  which 
comes  thru  being  told  how  and  what  to  do.  We  must  not 
expect  him  to  develop  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind  that  is 
really  worth  while  without  passing  thru  a  certain  amount  of 
elementary  thought  experience  such  as  number  one  and  num- 
ber two  before  stressing  number  three.  In  other  words,  util- 
izing the  instincts  of  number  one  we  would  by  instruction  or 
association  hitch  on  all  the  lessons  race  experiences  can  give 
about  carpentry.  Out  of  this  should  come  an  ability  to  do  real 
creative  thinking  and  execution  in  carpentry.  The  educa- 
tional process  is  complete  only  when  this  embryo  has  had 
opportunity  to  apply  his  derived  theory  to  new  situations. 

8.     Modifications  in  Practice  Due  to  Variation  in  Aims. 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 147 

In  all  that  has  been  said  in  the  discussion  so  far,  the  assump- 
tion has  been  that  conditions  are  ideal  and  that  every  boy  has 
time  and  financial  means  to  pursue  a  type  of  educational  ex- 
perience which  makes  due  allowance  for  natural  development 
and  which  is  calculated  to  train  him  for  the  highest  positions, 
whether  in  a  trade  or  other  line  of  life  activity.  Such  ideal 
conditions  do  not  exist,  of  course.  It  will  be  found  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  institute  practices  to  meet  social  and 
economic  conditions  which  come  short  of  preparing  a  student 
for  this  highest  type. 

One  should  not  expect,  for  example,  to  find  in  an  elemen- 
tary industrial  arts  course,  wherein  limited  time  makes  a 
hurried  preparation  for  industry  necessary,  much  attention 
being  devoted  to  the  development  of  originality,  initiative, 
resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  etc.  Rather  the  attention  will  be 
found  centered  upon  associative  thinking  wherein  the  school 
seeks  to  give  to  the  boy  highly  specific  associations,  such  as  it 
can,  pertaining  to  some  specific  activity,  determining  these  as- 
sociations from  race  experience  and  immediate  individual  need. 
Likewise,  a  boy  being  trained  for  the  skilled  labor  class  will  be 
given  more  training  thru  associations  and  less  opportunity 
for  generalizations  than  will  another  being  trained  for  direc- 
torship. 

Again,  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  em- 
phasis upon  generalizations,  rules,  theory,  etc.,  may  justly 
find  a  place  in  certain  types  of  schools  at  the  expense  of 
attention  to  specific  concrete  experiences.  Such  work,  how- 
ever, is  subject  to  serious  limitations  unless  it  is  based  upon 
at  least  a  small  amount  of  individual  experience  with  the 
concrete  experiences  or  data  out  of  which  the  theory  is  de- 
duced and  at  least  a  limited  opportunity  for  application. 

No  school  should  be  judged  adversely  as  to  method  until 
its  aims  are  known.  Even  then,  a  fair-minded  investigator 
will  not  judge  a  school  until  he  has  made  a  survey  of  its 


148        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

work  as  a  whole.  It  is  possible  for  one  to  emphasize  asso- 
ciative thinking  for  a  period  of  a  year  or  even  more,  empha- 
sizing instruction  and  conventional  methods  of  procedure. 
Manifestly,  if  the  plan  of  such  a  one  calls  for  opportunity 
to  make  applications  of  such  instruction  the  following  year 
in  creative  effort,  an  inspector  would  be  unjust  to  condemn 
the  work  of  this  teacher  upon  a  visit  or  two  to  his  seventh 
grade  work  when  his  eighth  grade  work  called  for  opportunity 
for  expression.  It  might  be  the  better  part  of  wisdom  to  give 
such  opportunities  at  less  great  intervals — the  principle,  how- 
ever, is  the  same.  Neither  will  a  fair-minded  inspector  con- 
demn instruction  which  is  associative  largely  when  such  work 
is  for  special  ends,  such  as  early  entrance  into  industry. 

9.  Summary.  The  educative  process  is  concerned  with 
associative  and  with  selective  thinking  of  certain  well-defined 
types.  Much  of  confusion  and  misunderstanding  has  arisen 
because  the  evaluating  unit  used  is  too  large  to  give  sufficient 
definiteness  in  attempts  to  analyze  situations  as  they  have  to 
do  with  types  of  thinking.  In  no  case  is  an  experience  one 
of  associative  thinking  solely,  or  of  selective  thinking  solely. 
In  every  case  of  associative  thinking  there  is  selection  and 
in  every  case  of  selective  thinking  there  is  association;  it  is 
a  question  of  degree.  For  this  reason  we  are  at  liberty  to 
choose  any  measuring  unit  we  may  consider  advantageous. 
The  unit  which  divides  situations  into  three  instead  of  two 
parts  will  be  used  in  the  discussions  which  follow. 

Our  three  types  are :  common  associative,  select-associative, 
selective.  The  new  term  select-associative  is  introduced  to 
designate  a  type  of  thinking  which  is  more  selective  than  com- 
mon associative,  and  more  dependent  upon  association  than 
selective.  Common  associative  is  that  type  of  thought  wherein 
there  is  apparently  no  central  idea,  just  a  mass  of  detail — an 
uncontrolled  stream  carrying  every  variety  of  floating  thing 
related  in  time  rather  than  in  reason.    Selective  thinking  is  the 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 149 

type  wherein  the  individual  sets  his  own  goal,  works  out  sub- 
ordinate detail,  etc.,  thru  his  own  analysis  and  selection.  Our 
select-associative  type  is  a  type  wherein  there  is  a  central 
idea  and  subordinate  detail,  but  a  type  wherein  the  teacher, 
or  society  thru  the  teacher,  has  provided  the  central  idea 
and  given  it  its  setting  thru  careful  instruction  and  demon- 
stration. 

In  our  attempts  to  evaluate  these  different  types  of  think- 
ing we  may  dismiss  type  one  with  the  statement  that  it  finds 
a  place  in  the  educative  process  thru  necessity  rather  than 
thru  choice.  It  is  the  basis  for  the  second  and  third  types. 
Being  instinctive,  the  chief  concern  is  one  of  direction  rather 
than  of  encouragement.  The  first  type  is  not  regarded  highly 
in  the  work  of  the  world.  It  is  the  chief  mental  character- 
istic of  the  unskilled  labor  class.  Type  two  is  not  so  common 
and  its  rewards  are  correspondingly  greater.  It  is  the  chief 
mental  characteristic  of  the  skilled  labor  class.  The  greatest 
rewards  are  reserved  for  type  three  which  is  the  chief  mental 
characteristic  of  the  inventor  or  director  class.  This  stratifi- 
cation of  society  into  common  associative,  select-associative, 
and  selective  types  of  thinking  classes  is  a  social  arrangement 
or  racial  development  which  finds  an  exact  counterpart  in 
individual  development.  While  the  third  type  is  the  highest 
and  effort  should  be  made  to  develop  it,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  most  of  the  world's  work  is  done  by  type  two,  and 
that  type  three  depends  upon  a  certain  amount  of  experience 
in  types  two  and  one  as  a  preliminary. 

When  pupils  are  required  to  comprehend  and  retain  facts  as 
an  aim — when  skill  is  aimed  at  as  an  end  in  itself,  this,  Dr. 
McMurry  characterizes  as  instruction  on  a  lower  plane.  When 
facts  are  comprehended  and  remembered  as  means  not  ends, 
when  efficiency  is  the  goal,  and  the  aim  is  to  make  pupils  high 
minded,  judicious,  forceful,  self-reliant,  this,  he  calls  instruc- 
tion on  a  higher  plane.     By  instruction  on  a  lower  plane,  he 


150         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

evidently  means  instruction  which  depends  upon  associative 
thinking,  similarity  of  subject-matter  and  similarity  of  method 
of  procedure.  By  instruction  on  a  higher  plane  he  means 
instruction  which  depends  upon  selective  thinking,  upon  gen- 
eralizations. Generalizations,  or  development  of  a  resource- 
ful attitude  of  mind,  he  considers  the  end  and  aim  of  education. 

Not  infrequently,  educators  in  their  eagerness  to  point  out 
the  limitations  of  associative  thinking  and  the  advantages  of 
selective  thinking  lead  young  teachers  to  conclude  that  asso- 
ciative thinking  is  a  thing  to  be  avoided.  Such  teachers  need 
to  be  reminded  that  "Empirical  concretes  not  abstractions 
give  the  basis  for  associations,"  and  that  associations  in  turn 
give  the  basis  for  selective  thinking. 

On  the  other  hand,  teachers  of  shopwork  often  become  so 
concerned  with  giving  to  their  pupils  instruction  and  demon- 
strations of  conventional  methods  of  procedure,  in  order 
that  they  may  have  the  benefit  of  race  experience,  that  they 
forget  race  progress  is  possible  only  thru  selective  think- 
ing and  that  the  type  of  thinking  their  pupils  are  getting  by 
such  methods  is  not  adequate. 

It  is  impossible  to  place  emphasis  upon  associative  and  selec- 
tive thinking  at  one  and  the  same  time.  One  cannot  tell  a 
boy  how  to  make  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint  and  at  the  same 
time  have  him  discover  how  it  is  to  be  done.  It  is  possible 
to  harmonize  conflicting  aims,  or  to  attend  to  the  two  kinds 
of  thinking  by  alternation  wherein  there  shall  be  interspersed 
with  the  instructional  groups  other  groups  which  give  oppor- 
tunity for  application  of  such  instruction  in  new  ways.  The 
inference  as  to  method  in  general  is  clear:  we  are  to  pay 
attention  to  empirical  concretes — specific  experiences  with 
concrete  materials;  out  of  these  will  come  abstractions  or 
generalizations,  rules,  theory,  ideals;  these  in  turn  are  to 
serve  as  connecting  links  whereby  the  student  may  be  enabled 


TYPES  OF  THINKING 151 

to  make  more  economical  use  of  past  experiences  in  meeting 
new  situations. 

The  discussion  so  far  has  presupposed  ideal  conditions 
wherein  only  the  needs  of  the  individual  psychologically  are 
considered.  It  must  be  recognized  that  social  and  economic 
need  will  make  necessary  the  establishing  of  schools  and 
classes  for  the  economically  unfortunate  wherein  emphasis 
may  be  placed  upon  a  type  of  reaction  manifestly  not  involv- 
ing a  high  type  of  thinking.  Again,  there  may  be  other  types 
of  school  which  may,  with  equal  justice,  emphasize  general- 
ized experiences  at  the  expense  of  concrete  or  specific.  No 
school  or  class  should  be  judged  adversely  until  a  survey  of 
its  work  as  a  whole,  together  with  its  aims,  has  been  made. 

Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chapters  IX,  X. 

James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapter  XIII. 

Final  Report  of  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  Com- 
mittee on  School  Inquiry,  New  York  City,  1911-1913,  Vol. 
1,  pp.  56-58,  211-236,  249-259,  294-298. 

Dewey:    How  We  Think,  Chapter  VI. 

Class  Discussion. 

1.  Give  an  example  of  common  associative  thinking. 

2.  Give  an  example  of  selective  thinking.  Of  selective  associa- 
tive thinking. 

3.  Differentiate  common  associative,  select-associative,  and 
selective  thinking  by  means  of  examples  from  the  manual 
and  industrial  arts. 

4.  When  the  teacher  so  organizes  his  work  that  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  comprehend  and  retain  facts  as  an  aim — when 
skill  is  aimed  at  as  an  end  in  itself — this,  Dr.  McMurry  calls 
instruction  on  the  lower  plane — "storage  of  knowlege  and 
acquisition  of  mechanical  skill."  By  what  right  does  he 
call  it  so? 

5.  When  facts  are  comprehended  and  remembered  as  means, 
not  ends,  when  efficiency  is  the  goal,  and  the  aim  is  to 
make  pupils  high-minded,  judicious,  forceful,  self-reliant, 
this  he  calls  "instruction  on  the  higher  plane."  By  what 
right? 

6.  In  the  light  of  past  readings  in  Thorndike's  Principles  of 
Teaching,  do  you  conclude  that  there  is  no  place  in  the 
educational  scheme  for  emphasis  upon  that  kina  of  instruc- 


152 TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

tion  which  McMurry  designates  instruction  on  the  lower 
plane?    Justify  your  answer. 

7.  Which  is  worse,  never  teaching  the  conventions  of  the 
activity  (Conventional  methods  of  procedure  developed 
thru  race  experience  and  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation — Cf.  Sargent:  Fine  and  Industial  Arts  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools,  pp.  6,  7)  in  which  the  pupils  are  engaged 
on  the  ground  that  to  do  so  is  to  give  instruction  on  a 
lower  plane,  or  never  to  allow  initiative  (selective  think- 
ing) upon  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  that  activity? 

8.  State  your  order  of  procedure  in  a  proposed  manual  or  in- 
dustrial arts  problem  whereby  you  introduce  your  pupils 
to  experiences  in  selective  thinking  and  at  the  same  time 
make  such  thinking  efficient  because  based  upon  a  knowl- 
edge of  conventions  involved.  (Cf.  Griffith:  Correlated 
Courses,  pp.  18-20)   (Cf.  Sargent:  Fine  and  Industrial  Arts, 

pp.  52,  89.) 

9.  Classify  the  following  as  to  plane  of  instruction:  Teacher 
hands  a  pupil  a  blueprint  day  after  day  to  be  copied  or 
traced;  teacher  marks  on  execution. 

10.  Examine  Bennett's  Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing  and 
classify  the  types  of  instruction. 

11.  A  pupil  makes  a  booklet  from  specific  instructions;  classify 
such  instruction.  What  other  experiences  are  needed  to 
give  the  child  experiences  based  upon  instruction  on  a 
higher  plane?  Note  that  "instruction  on  the  higher  plane 
implies  a  central  idea  and  subordinate  detail.  Associative 
thinking  is  more  or  less  rambling  with  no  central  idea — 
just  a  mass  of  detail  related  to  one  another  in  time  rather 
than  in  reason." 

12.  Differentiate  or  designate  the  type  of  thinking  predominant 

in  each  of  the  following:  expressional  manual  arts;  tech- 
nical manual  arts  for  general  educational  purposes ;  indus- 
trial arts  wherein  the  aim  is  a  machine  tender,  a  skilled 
mechanic,  a  foreman. 


CHAPTER  XI 

TEACHING   METHODS   IN    MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

1.  Teaching  Methods.  Two  distinct  methods  are  com- 
monly recognized,  the  deductive,  or  imitative  and  the 
inductive,  or  heuristic.  The  terms  discovery  method  and 
inventive  method  will  be  found  not  uncommonly.  Dis- 
covery and  invention  are  essentially  inductive  and  will  be 
so  treated  in  the  discussion  which  follows. 

Just  as  we  found  in  the  consideration  of  associative  and 
selective  thinking  of  the  preceding  chapter,  that  schoolmen 
were  divided  into  two  rather  hostile  camps  because  of  the 
selection  of  too  large  a  unit  of  measurement  for  purposes  of 
analysis,  so  in  method  discussions  we  find  the  same  situation. 
As  it  was  found  possible  to  reconcile  conflicting  ideas  in  the 
matter  of  associative  vs.  selective  thinking  values  by  assum- 
ing a  smaller  unit  or  interval  for  purposes  of  differentiation, 
so  we  shall  be  able  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of  the  methods 
conflict.  Instead  of  debating  the  question  as  to  which  is 
the  proper  method — inductive  or  deductive,  discovery  and 
invention  or  imitation,  we  may  have  three  methods,  1.  Induc- 
tive method,  2.  Deductive  method,  3.  Complete  method. 

Those  who  see  only  skill  and  automatic  connections,  or 
feeling,  as  an  end  in  education,  path  number  3,  Fig.  1,  are 
bound  to  champion  imitation  and  demonstration — deductive 
teaching.  Those  who  see  in  education  the  development  of  a 
resourceful  attitude  of  mind — intellect,  will  emphasize  the 
heuristic  or  inductive  method.  Those  who  see  in  education 
the  necessity  for  developing  a  certain  amount  of  skill  and 
technic  that  the  effort  to  develop  a  resourceful  attitude  of 
mind  may  be  worth  while  because  of  its  being  based  upon 
some  degree  of  understanding  and  some  skill,  and  who  insist 

153 


i 


154         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

that  this  resourceful  attitude  shall  find  expression  in  efficient 
application,  will  make  use  of  both  the  imitative,  or  deductive 
and  the  heuristic,  or  inductive  methods,  the  complete  method. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  it  is  only  for  the  sake  of  analysis 
that  we  can  differentiate  these — there  can  be  no  inductive 
thinking  without  deduction,  no  deductive  thought  without  in- 
duction. That  is,  no  new  idea  can  get  into  the  mind  unless 
it  is  related  to  some  old  idea  for  interpretation.  For  example, 
a  geographer  goes  into  a  new  country.  He  finds  new  rivers 
and  new  mountains.  He  plots  them  and  makes  a  map  to 
show  their  locations.  The  process  is  one  of  discovery,  induc- 
tion. The  emphasis  is  on  the  new.  Now  in  a  minor  degree 
the  process  was  deductive.  Were  it  not  for  his  past  experi- 
ences with,  or  knowledge  of,  the  nature  of  rivers  and  moun- 
tains he  would  not  have  recognized  the  new  phenomena  as 
such.  Now,  let  another  person  take  this  map  and  go  to  this 
country.  He  looks  at  the  map  and  notes  a  river  located  at 
such  a  place.  He  goes  to  the  place,  finds  the  river  by  means 
of  the  map.  The  process  here  is  essentially  deductive — the 
emphasis  is  upon  the  old,  upon  the  map.  Yet  the  new  is 
present  too.  These  methods  differ  then  in  emphasis,  in  direc- 
tion of  approach. 

2.  The  Deductive  or  Imitative  Method.  The  chief  ad- 
vantage of  this  method  is  economy  of  time.  If  society  wants 
a  boy  to  learn  how  to  square-up  a  piece  of  stock,  or  to  learn 
the  conventional  way  of  making  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint, 
the  quickest  way  is  to  tell  him  and  show  him  just  how  to  do 
this.  In  the  boy's  effort  to  make  the  joint  and  to  square- 
up  the  stock  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  discovery  going 
on,  of  course,  but  the  chief  mental  effort  is  one  of  association 
in  time  rather  than  in  reason,  trying  to  recall  what  was  heard 
and  what  was  seen  in  the  lecture  and  demonstration.  The 
process  is  one  of  imitation  rather  than  of  discovery  so  far 
as  the  learning  method  is  concerned. 


TEACHING  METHODS 155 

The  weakness  of  this  type  of  instruction  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  tend  to  develop  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind 
but  rather  the  reverse,  dependence  upon  others.  While  dis- 
covery is  present  at  first  in  varying  degree,  the  quicker  the 
mental  connections  can  be  eliminated  thru  the  direct  connect- 
ing of  sensation  and  reaction  in  this  particular  thing  the  more 
efficient  the  worker  becomes.  The  development  of  a  resource- 
ful attitude  of  mind  implies  emphasis  upon  mental  connec- 
tions, and  any  method  of  instruction  which  tends  to  eliminate 
such  connections  by  the  making  of  the  connection  thru  feel- 
ing cannot  be  considered  a  fitting  method  for  that  purpose. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  there  is  a  large  place  for  dis- 
covery in  the  execution  of  the  most  carefully  demonstrated 
exercise.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  following:  "There 
is  a  psychology  in  every  tool  with  which  a  child  deals.  For 
example,  take  the  saw.  If  you  are  a  child  you  grasp  it  in  your 
hand  and  begin  to  work.  Any  child  gets  from  this  tool  such 
an  abundance  of  bewildering  experiences  that  he  hardly 
knows  what  to  do  with  it.  He  feels  it  in  his  hand  and  when 
it  comes  in  contact  with  the  wood,  he  feels  the  pressure,  he 
feels  the  new  sensations  which  come  to  him  thru  his  skin,  he 
looks  at  the  point  of  attack  and  his  eyes  are  full  of  color 
and  form.  This  great  mass  of  experience  flowing  into  his 
consciousness  bewilders  him.  We  say  to  him,  'go  slowly, 
take  one  stroke,  then  wait  and  readjust.'  If  he  should  go  on, 
at  the  end  of  the  first  stroke,  he  would  be  getting  so  much 
more  experience  that  he  would  not  know  what  to  do  with 
himself.  Watch  him  after  he  has  made  a  little  way  into  the 
board  with  the  saw.  Now,  the  saw  turns  and  binds.  He  gets 
more  experience  but  he  does  not  realize  the  fact  that  he  has 
been  turning  the  saw.  The  moment  your  skilled  technician 
gets  the  sensation  that  comes  from  the  saw  binding  in  the 
groove,  he  knows  what  is  wrong  and  he  handles  the  saw  so 
as  to  bring  it  in  proper  relation  again  with  a  turn  of  his  hand- 


156         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

But  your  boy  is  bewildered.  He  gets  so  much  sensation  he 
does  not  have  attention  for  anything  else.  There  are  more 
lines  before  him  than  he  has  any  appreciation  of,  the  lines 
get  mixed  up  on  the  saw,  and  if  he  lands  anywhere  near  the 
line  he  is  very  grateful  for  that  much  of  an  achievement. 
The  process  of  learning  is  a  slow  unravelling  of  all  this  mass 
of  experience.  Skill  comes  from  adjusting  movement  to 
sensation."  (Judd,  1915  Report,  Western  Drawing  and 
Manual  Training  Association.) 

This  discovery  process,  as  is  indicated  by  the  quotation,  is 
ample  enough,  with  every  aid  that  can  be  given  thru  careful 
demonstration  and  instruction  in  the  ways  race  experience 
has  developed,  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  boy.  If  new 
processes  are  introduced  this  same  type  of  experience  is  being 
repeated  in  new  settings  so  that  even  in  a  four-year  manual 
training  course  where  demonstrations  are  a  regular  feature 
of  the  full  four  years'  work,  there  is  discovery.  This  experi- 
ence, however,  is  not  a  sufficient  one.  The  reactions  are  so 
closely  related  in  time  to  the  sensations  thru  feeling  that 
intellect  does  not  have  as  great  opportunity  to  function  as 
must  needs  be  to  make  for  that  which  the  educator  chooses 
to  call  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind. 

3.  The  Inductive  or  Heuristic  Method.  The  inductive 
or  heuristic  method,  in  its  primary  significance,  refers  to  a 
learning  thru  mere  discovery  wherein  no  definite  goal  is  set. 
Like  the  explorers  of  a  new  country  the  pupil  travels  about 
as  fancy  dictates.  Of  the  three  stages  of  development, 
(1)  spontaneity,  (2)  instruction,  (3)  creative  effort,  the 
heuristic  method,  in  its  primary  meaning,  refers  to  the  ex- 
periences of  type  number  1. 

Among  educators,  however,  the  inductive  or  heuristic 
method  more  nearly  approximates  what  might  be  designated 
the  inventive  method.  A  definite  goal  is  set,  either  by  pupil 
or  teacher,  and  the  pupil  is  supposed  to  work  out  an  adequate 


TEACHING  METHODS 157 

solution.  Instead  of  the  teacher's  leading  the  way,  telling  and 
showing,  as  in  the  imitative  or  deductive  method,  the  pupil 
leads  the  way,  the  teacher  following  and  not  interfering  ex- 
cept as  the  pupil  goes  so  far  astray  that  the  experience  be- 
comes of  little  value. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  set  forth  here  the  advantages  which 
come  thru  the  inductive  or  heuristic  method,  the  assigned 
readings  cover  these  sufficiently.  Suffice  it  to  state  that  race 
progress  is  possible  only  thru  this  type  of  thinking.  "Intelli- 
gent self  direction,  an  alert  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  and 
power  to  plan  means  to  an  end  are  its  fruits  when  wisely 
administered." 

4.  The  Complete  Method.  The  complete  method  is 
neither  inductive  nor  deductive  but  both  in  varying  degree. 
First  one  and  then  the  other,  alternating  as  the  unfolding 
nature  of  the  child  demands.  Froebel's  spontaneity,  instruc- 
tion and  creative  effort  point  the  way.  Creative  effort,  dis- 
covery, or  invention,  is  of  slight  value  until  based  upon  a 
knowledge  of,  and  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in,  the  conventions 
of  the  activity  in  which  the  creative  effort  is  to  be.  Instruc- 
tion in  conventional  methods  of  procedure  is  of  slight  value 
unless  based  upon  a  feeling  of  real  need  thru  spontaneous 
activity  or  activity  not  directed  and  controlled  by  instruction. 
Spontaneous  effort,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  must  be 
self  initiated  and  free  from  external  authority,  inductive. 
It  is  a  discovery  process  with  all  the  limitations  which  come 
from  an  attempt  at  creative  work  without  information  which 
comes  thru  race  experience,  and  skill.  Instruction  consists 
in  giving  to  the  pupil  information  such  as  the  race  has  col- 
lected thru  countless  ages  of  experimentation,  with  an  oppor- 
tunity to  acquire  enough  skill  to  make  possible  the  next  step 
in  the  learning  process.  Instruction  is  deductive,  and  under 
authority.  It  is  not  free  except  as  the  individual  has  been 
brought  to  see  a  real  need  thru  the  experiences  of  spontaneous 


158         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

activity,  and  then  only  partially,  but  is  one  of  the  steps  toward 
a  real  freedom.  Creative  effort  consists  in  utilizing  all  the 
information  and  skill  obtained  during  the  period  of  instruc- 
tion toward  working  out  experiences  not  encompassed  in 
instruction. 

The  introduction  to  the  1912  Illinois  State  Course  of  Study 
in  Manual  Arts,  by  Prof.  Charles  A.  Bennett,  is  a  practical 
statement  which  gives  full  recognition  to  the  principles  just 
enunciated :  "Any  course  in  woodworking  worthy  of  a  place 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  public  school  work  should 
meet  the  following  requirements: 

1.  It  should  arouse  and  hold  the  interest  of  the  pupils. 

2.  Correct  methods  of  handling  tools  should  be  taught  so  that 
good  technic  may  be  acquired  by  the  pupils. 

3.  Tool  work  should  be  accompanied  by  a  study  of  materials 
and  tools  used  in  their  relations  to  industry.  Special  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  study  of  trees — their  growth, 
classifications,  characteristics  and  use. 

4*    Drawing  should  be  studied  in  its  relation  to  the  work  done. 

5.  The  principles  of  construction  in  wood  should  be  taught 
thru  observation,  illustration  and  experience. 

6.  At  least  a  few  problems  should  be  given  which  involve  in- 
vention or  design  or  both,  thereby  stimulating  individual 
initiative  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

The  course  is  arranged  in  groups,  each  group  representing 
a  type  of  work.  These  groups  are  given  in  the  order  of  pro- 
cedure. The  teacher  is  expected  to  provide  problems  of  the 
greatest  value  educationally.  This  means  that  the  things 
to  be  made  should  be  worth  making  and  that  the  process  of 
making  them  should  be  interesting  to  the  student.  From  this 
it  follows  that  the  things  to  be  made  must  come  to  the  pupil 
in  an  order  which  gives  reasonable  consideration  to  the  diffi- 
culties to  be  encountered  in  making  them." 

5.  Modification  in  Method  Due  to  Variation  in  Aims. 
Aims  will  vary;  likewise,  we  must  expect  methods  to  vary 
with  these  varying  aims.  While  we  shall  find  in  every  attempt 
to  use  any  one  method  elements  of  the  others,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  we  may  profitably  indicate  variations  in  placing 


TEACHING  METHODS 159 

emphasis.  For  example,  primary  grades  will  be  found  em- 
phasizing spontaneity  in  expressional  manual  arts;  grammar 
grades  and  early  high  school  will  be  found  emphasizing  in- 
struction in  conventional  methods  of  procedure,  later  high 
school  will  place  emphasis  upon  creative  effort.  All  of  these 
grades,  primary,  grammar,  and  high  school,  will  give  atten- 
tion to  technical  subject-matter  and  methods,  and  all  of  them 
to  a  certain  degree  will  allow  for  spontaneity  and  creative 
effort,  or  should,  but  the  emphasis  is  as  stated.  Even  in  the 
work  of  a  given  grade  in  any  given  technical  work,  there  will 
be  groups  set  aside  for  the  exercise  of  creative  effort,  where 
the  work  is  wisely  planned.  The  instructional  groups  will 
predominate,  however,  in  the  upper  grades  and  early  high 
school. 

Then,  there  is  the  need  of  the  industrial  arts  group  for 
variation  in  methods  emphasis.  Those  boys  who  are  to  be- 
come foremen  and  directors  will  need  more  groups  wherein 
creative  effort  is  based  upon  instruction  than  will  the  type 
which  is  to  go  into  low  skilled  or  semi-skilled  work  where 
ability  to  follow  orders  and  execute  with  facility  is  the  chief 
prerequisite. 

In  general,  wherever  we  seek  to  develop  skill,  we  shall  make 
use  of  authority,  imitation,  demonstration.  If  we  want  to 
develop  initiative,  resourcefulness,  we  shall  make  use  of 
authority,  imitation,  demonstration,  no  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  give  a  sufficient  basis  in  understanding  and  skill 
for  experimentation  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

As  in  thinking  types,  so  in  methods,  the  work  of  a  teacher 
must  not  be  condemned  until  the  work  as  a  whole  of  that 
teacher  has  been  surveyed,  including  a  consideration  of  the 
special  needs  of  the  class  of  pupils  he  may  be  instructing. 

6.  Summary.  Two  distinct  methods  of  teaching  are 
commonly  recognized — deductive  or  imitative  and  inductive  or 
heuristic.     We  may  have  three  methods,  and,  for  purposes 


160         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

of  harmonizing  conflicting  aims,  we  offer  the  following: 
(1)  inductive,  (2)  deductive,  (3)  complete.  Those  who  em- 
phasize automatic  connections,  feeling,  will  champion  imita- 
tion and  the  deductive  method.  Those  who  seek  to  stress  in- 
tellect and  the  development  of  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind 
will  make  use  of  the  inductive  or  heuristic  method.  Those 
who  seek  to  emphasize  creative  effort  based  upon  information 
and  experience  in  conventional  methods  of  procedure,  will 
make  use  of  both  the  imitative  and  the  heuristic,  the  com- 
plete method.  It  must  be  recognized  that  it  is  only  for  the 
sake  of  analysis  that  we  can  differentiate  inductive  from  de- 
ductive. In  every  act  of  induction  there  are  deductive  ele- 
ments and  vice  versa.  Methods  differ  in  emphasis  and  direc- 
tion, not  kind. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  deductive  or  imitative  method 
is  one  of  economy  of  time.  The  weakness  of  this  type  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  fails  to  develop  a  resourceful  attitude  of 
mind.  Rather  does  it  develop  a  dependence  upon  others.  It 
should  be  recognized  that  there  is  a  large  place  for  discovery 
in  the  execution  of  even  the  most  carefully  demonstrated 
exercise.  This  experience,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  class 
it  as  of  that  type  the  educator  has  in  mind  when  he  speaks 
of  developing  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind. 

The  inductive  or  heuristic  method,  in  its  primary  signifi- 
cance, refers  to  learning  thru  mere  discovery  wherein  no 
definite  goal  is  set.  Among  educators,  however,  it  has  refer- 
ence to  a  situation  wherein  a  definite  goal  is  set,  either  by 
the  pupil  or  the  teacher,  and  the  pupil  asked  to  work  out 
an  adequate  solution.  Intelligence  and  self  direction,  an  alert, 
resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  and  power  to  plan  means  to 
an  end  are  its  fruits  when  wisely  administered. 

The  complete  method  is  neither  inductive  nor  deductive 
but  both  in  varying  degree.  Froebers  (1)  spontaneity,  (2)  in- 
struction,   (3)   creative  effort  point  the  way. 


TEACHING  METHODS 161 

Aims  will  vary;  likewise  we  must  expect  methods  in  the 
manual  arts  to  vary  with  these.  The  industrial  arts  will  be 
found  to  have  need  for  these  same  variations  in  method.  In 
general,  whenever  we  seek  to  develop  skill  we  shall  make  use 
of  authority,  imitation,  demonstration.  If  we  desire  to  de- 
velop a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind,  initiative,  originality,  etc., 
we  shall  make  use  of  these  no  more  than  is  necessary  to  give 
a  basis  in  understanding  and  skill  for  purposes  of  experimen- 
tation on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  As  in  thinking  types,  so  in 
methods,  the  work  of  a  teacher  should  not  be  condemned 
until  the  work  of  that  teacher  as  a  whole  has  been  surveyed. 

Reference  Reading: 

Charters:     Methods  of  Teaching,  Chapters  XIII,  XIV. 

Bennett:     The  Manual  Arts,  Chapter  VIII. 

Bagley:     The  Educative  Process,  pp.  239-247. 

Thorndike:     Education,  pp.  168-196. 

DeGarmo:     Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.   II,  pp. 

178-182. 
Dewey:    How  We  Think,  Chapter  VII. 

Griffith :  Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  pp.  7-11,  41-51. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  Discuss  rather  fully  the  advantages  and  the  limitations  of 
the  deductive  or  imitative  method. 

2.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  limitations  of  inductive  or 
heuristic  method  when  not  based  upon  instruction  in  the 
conventional  ways  of  manipulating  the  materials  under  con- 
sideration. 

3.  Differentiate  and  illustrate  the  complete  method. 

4.  In  each  of  the  above  methods,  would  emphasis  placed  upon 
one  method  or  another  be  modified  were  a  certain  grade 
specified,  as  primary,  grammar,  high  school,  university? 

5.  What  method  would  most  likely  be  found  wherein  pupils 
were  being  prepared  for  occupations  industrially  requiring 
low  skill  or  limited  skill?  (  What  method  where  a  wide 
range  of  intelligence  and  skill  is  to  be  demanded?  Where 
the  pupils  are  being  trained  for  leadership  in  industry,  such 
as  foremen? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  LESSON — ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 

1.  The  Necessity  for  Carefully  Matured  Plans.     Even  as 

consciousness  in  youth  evolves  out  of  a  "big,  blooming,  buzz- 
ing confusion"  and  takes  form  and  becomes  of  value  as  it 
differentiates  one  thing  or  experience  from  another  or  others, 
so  good  teaching  becomes  of  value  just  in  proportion  as  the 
young  teacher  differentiates  ideals,  aims,  and  the  details  of 
preparation  and  presentation  of  subject-matter.  Inspiration, 
feeling,  instinct  are  valuable,  of  course,  as  has  been  pointed 
out,  but  intelligent  direction  is  no  less  a  part  of  the  teach- 
ing process. 

There  should  be  thought  out  the  larger  plans  of  organiza- 
tion of  teaching  materials.  The  essential  governing  factors 
as  to  choice  of  subject-matter  and  method  of  presentation, 
have  been  presented  in  preceding  lessons.  Typical  outlines 
in  various  media  and  for  various  grades  will  be  found  in  Ap- 
pendix II.  This  larger  organization  is  best  treated  under 
Organisation  and  Administration  of  Manual  and  Industrial 
Arts,  the  subject  of  a  companion  text  in  preparation.  Tak- 
ing for  granted  this  larger  organization  of  subject-matter,  the 
present  discussion  will  concern  itself  with  the  detailed  daily 
or  weekly  lesson  plan,  and  particularly  with  method  of  presen- 
tation. 

2.  The  Six  Formal  Steps.  For  purposes  of  analysis, 
the  followers  of  Herbart  frequently  divide  a  lesson  into  six 
parts;  (1)  preparation,  (2)  presentation,  (3)  comparison, 
(4)  abstraction,  (5)  generalization,  (6)  verification  or  appli- 
cation. In  actual  teaching,  of  course,  the  lesson  goes  forward 
in  this  order  only  in  a  general  way.  The  division,  too,  pre- 
supposes that  each  lesson  is  a  complete  whole,  whereas  certain 
lessons   for  rather  extended  periods  of  time  may  be  given 

162 


THE  LESSON—ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 163 

primarily  as  preparation  lessons  looking  forward  to  future 
application.  In  such  cases  steps  number  four  and  number  five 
may  receive  but  slight  emphasis.  Such  lessons  will  be  strongly 
deductive,  imitative  as  opposed  to  inductive  and  develop- 
mental. Later  lessons  will  be  strongly  inductive,  calculated  to 
develop  initiative  and  creative  effort. 

Preparation  consists  in  having  the  pupils  recall  to  mind 
certain  previous  knowledge  or  information  and  experience, 
which  knowledge,  information  and  experience  are  necessary 
as  a  means  of  connecting  up  new  knowledge  or  information 
and  experience  with  which  it  is  desired  to  make  the  pupils 
acquainted.  Preparation  in  information  in  technical  manual 
arts  is  mainly  a  matter  of  securing  recall  thru  examinatory 
questions  or  the  recitation  on  assigned  readings,  bearing  on 
past  experiences.  (Cf.  type  form  of  daily  lesson  plan,  which 
follows.) 

Presentation  in  technical  manual  arts  consists  in  conveying 
to  the  pupils  new  materials  for  assimilation.  This  is  usually 
done  by  means  of  demonstration  and  instruction. 

Comparison  consists  in  the  association  of  one  set  of  ex- 
periences with  another  set.  For  example,  a  student  may  be 
taught  to  hold  the  head  of  the  gage  against  the  face  edge  in 
gaging  a  piece  of  stock  to  width  for  a  hat  rack.  He  may  be 
taught  to  hold  it  against  the  face  edge  in  gaging  a  piece  of 
stock  to  width  for  a  counting  board,  etc.  Before  he  can 
take  the  next  step,  abstraction,  he  must  have  compared  one 
set  of  experiences  with  other  sets,  noting  wherein  they  are 
similar  and  wherein  they  differ.  In  the  case  of  the  gaging, 
he  should  note  in  such  comparisons  that  the  gage  head  is 
always  held  against  the  face  edge,  abstracting  the  common 
element ;  then  he  is  ready  to  take  the  next  step,  generalization, 
and  make  the  deduction  that  gaging  for  width  should  always 
be  done  with  the  gage  head  or  block  against  the  face  edge. 


164        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

In  similar  manner  he  may  be  got  to  deduce  other  principles 
or  rules  for  working  wood  or  metal. 

Verification,  or  application,  consists  in  taking  such  derived 
principles  or  rules,  and  making  them  serve  to  shorten  the 
time  of  experimentation.  Once  the  student  has  learned  that, 
in  gaging  widths,  the  gage  block  is  to  be  held  against  the 
face  edge,  he  is  to  be  given  an  opportunity  to  govern  himself 
accordingly  in  other  situations  similar  in  respect  to  this  factor 
until. the  habit  of  always  holding  the  gage  head  against  the 
face  edge  in  gaging  width  is  fixed. 

3.  The  Six  Formal  Steps  Not  Always  Inductive.  It  is 
customary  to  associate  the  six  formal  steps  with  the  inductive 
method  primarily  with  its  emphasis  upon  the  development 
of  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind.  The  six  formal  steps 
might  as  well  be  associated  with  the  deductive  method  with 
its  emphasis  upon  authority,  upon  subject-matter  and  method. 
The  determining  factor  is  whether  the  teacher  or  the  pupils 
perform  steps  3,  4,  and  5,  make  the  comparisons,  abstractions 
and  generalizations.  Only  so  long  as  the  children  make  the 
comparisons  and  draw  the  correct  conclusions  is  the  method 
inductive.  In  actual  practice  the  teacher  often  either  cannot 
or  does  not  consider  it  advisable  to  wait  long  enough  for  the 
children  to  dp  this  but  tells  them  the  deduction,  or  rule,  or 
principle  to  be  derived.  The  method,  then,  is  essentially  de- 
ductive. Both  types  of  teaching  method  are  legitimate.  The 
ends  to  be  served  are  different,  but  both  are  legitimate.  Some- 
times one,  sometimes  the  other  is  to  be  emphasized.  Some- 
times the  alternation  of  emphasis  covers  a  period  of  years ; 
sometimes  it  is  so  immediate  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  when 
one  and  when  the  other  is  being  served. 

4.  Not  Every  Lesson  Needs  to  Be  Inductive.  There 
are  those  educators  who  would  have  every  lesson  inductive 
in  method.     The  young  teacher  will  do  well  to  recall  that 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS  165 


knowledge  of  subject-matter  and  conventional  method  of  pro- 
cedure and  the  development  of  a  fair  degree  of  skill  are  essen- 
tial factors  in  the  educational  process  even  as  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  resourceful  attitude  of  mind;  that  the  telling  or 
showing  or  associative  or  deductive  method  is  the  most  effec- 
tive method  of  giving  the  young  this  heritage  of  race  experi- 
ence. It  is  not  a  sin  pedagogically,  for  example,  to  tell  a 
boy,  when  he  does  his  first  gaging  for  width,  that  the  gage 
is  always  to  be  held  against  the  face  edge  in  gaging  for  width, 
if  in  so  doing  the  way  is  being  prepared  and  time  thereby 
saved  for  the  setting  of  a  larger  problem  in  analysis  or  com- 
parison and  generalization.  The  unfortunate  thing  is  never 
to  set  any  problems  wherein  the  pupil  will  be  called  to  do 
analytical  thinking,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  to 
mislead  oneself  into  thinking  he  is  providing  opportunities 
for  such  thinking  when  he  is  defeating  such  ends  thru  un- 
willingness to  wait  for  the  pupils  to  make  the  necessary  de- 
ductions. 

5.  Modern  Conception  of  Method.  While  the  method 
of  teaching  developed  by  Herbart  and  his  followers  has  proven 
wonderfully  helpful  in  assisting  young  teachers  the  better  to 
formulate  and  regulate  the  conduct  of  the  instructional  pro- 
cess, it  is  open  to  certain  objections  philosophically  which 
make  it  more  or  less  unacceptable  to  the  modern  educator. 
Representing,  as  it  does,  a  conception  of  instruction  as  some- 
thing static  and  fundamentally  logical  it  has  had  to  give  way 
to  a  conception  of  instruction  as  something  dynamic,  "mov- 
ing," psychological.  As  a  means  of  assisting  the  teacher  in 
formulating  his  own  thought  into  logical  form  thru  careful 
analysis,  it  is  still  practically  helpful ;  as  a  conception  of  what 
the  conduct  of  the  instructional  period  is  likely  to  be,  or 
should  be  like,  it  is  misleading. 

Prof.  John  Dewey,  in  How  We  Think,  has  formulated  a 


166         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


more  acceptable  conception  of  instruction.  In  this  conception 
of  the  method  of  instruction  we  have  the  occurrence  of  a 
problem  or  a  puzzling  phenomenon;  observation,  inspection 
of  facts  to  locate  and  clear  up  the  problem;  then  the  forma- 
tion of  a  hypothesis  or  the  suggestion  of  a  possible  solution 
together  with  its  elaboration  by  reasoning;  then  the  testing 
of  the  elaborated  idea  by  using  it  as  a  guide  to  aew  observa- 
tions and  experimentations.  Or,  as  Dean  W.  W.  Charters 
states  it: 

[  defined 

1.  The  problem  \       or 

[undefined 

[aided  by  suggestion  as  necessary 

2.  The  solution   -{  or 

[by  elaboration 

3.  Verification. 

The  young  teacher  will  do  well  to  read  carefully  Chap- 
ter XV  in  Dewey's  How  We  Think  and  Chapters  XIV,  XV, 
XIX  in  Charter's  Methods  of  Teaching.  He  will  then  be  able 
to  profit  by  a  study  of  such  detailed  lesson  planning  directions 
as  are  found  in  the  assigned  readings  without  coming  to  grief. 
He  will  know  that,  once  the  lesson  plan  has  been  formulated 
in  all  its  details  and  his  own  thought  clarified  thereby,  the 
best  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  lay  the  formal,  logical  plan 
aside  and  concentrate  his  attention  during  the  development 
of  the  lesson  upon  taking  advantage  of  every  opening  which 
presents  itself  favoring  the  solution  of  the  problem,  irre- 
spective of  its  place  in  the  logical  arrangement  previously 
made.  He  must,  of  course,  keep  in  mind  the  problem,  the 
general  plan  of  attack  which  he  has  formulated  for  securing 
the  solution,  and  see  that  the  supposed  solution  meets  the 
test  of  verification  thru  utilization  in  further  experimenta- 
tion.   He  must  also  have  his  materials  and  tools  prepared  and 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 167 

ready  just  as  far  as  this  can  be  anticipated.  He  must  have 
some  system  for  the  effective  management  of  the  class  so  that 
he  may  take  advantage  of  all  such  administrative  devices 
as  will  aid  in  the  successful  solution  of  the  problem  under 
consideration. 

6.  Instructive  Question  Rather  than  Directive  State- 
ment. As  far  as  possible  the  preliminary  and  instructive 
question  should  be  used  in  the  setting  and  in  the  solution  of 
a  problem  rather  than  directive  statement,  "telling  as  little 
as  possible,  and  inducing  the  pupils  to  discover  as  much  as 
possible."  Of  the  two  extremes,  never  telling  anything  and 
always  telling  everything,  neither  is  better.  Even  in  the  most 
intricate  situation  it  is  possible  by  means  of  preliminary  and 
instructive  questions  to  vitalize  a  demonstration  as  it  cannot 
be  done  by  mere  direction  and  at  the  same  time  cause  no 
loss  in  the  matter  of  presentation.  For  example,  let  it  be 
the  problem  of  conveying  the  idea  of  the  need  for  making 
working  drawings  in  beginning  shopwork.  The  teacher  may 
convey  the  idea  by  a  statement  of  fact  as  he  sees  it.  He  may 
convey  the  same  idea  by  asking  if  any  boy  in  the  class  has 
ever  seen  a  mechanic  looking  at  a  blue  paper  with  white 
lines  on  it  and  from  this  beginning  thru  other  preliminary 
instructive  questions  develop  the  idea  of  need  for  drawings. 
The  second  method  is  superior  to  the  first  in  so  many  ways 
that  it  is  surprising  that  manual  and  industrial  arts  teaching 
makes  no  more  use  of  it  than  it  does  in  actual  practice.  There 
are  times,  of  course,  when  it  is  quite  evident  the  pupils  will 
have  to  be  told.  Even  here  the  preliminary  question  within 
certain  limits  is  of  value.  It  serves  to  impress  upon  each  boy 
the  fact  that  he  does  not  know  and  that  he  must  attend  to 
instruction  or  demonstration  as  it  has  to  do  with  that  particular 
thing.     It  becomes  an  aid  in  preparation. 

Preliminary  and  instructive  questions  are  of  the  greatest 


168        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

aid  in  the  proper  maintenance  of  discipline  or  conduct.  Only 
as  pupils  are  participants  are  they  attentive  to  the  work  in 
hand.  A  good  teacher  not  infrequently  asks  questions  as  he 
demonstrates  for  no  other  reason  than  to  cause  his  class  to 
feel  that  they  are  a  necessary  part  of  the  demonstration.  That 
is,  he  may  know  that  they  have  no  adequate  answer  for  the 
various  steps  in  the  first  making  of  a  mortise-and-tenon 
joint,  but  he  questions  as  he  demonstrates  nevertheless.  Of 
course  the  questions  must  be  sensible  or  reasonable  ones  and 
have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  work  in  hand. 

7.  Intermediate  Plan  Form.  The  type  outlines  in  Ap- 
pendix II  give  the  first  and  largest  outlook  of  subject-matter 
for  teaching  purposes.  Coordinate  with  Method  of  Presen- 
tation are  more  detailed  factors  o.f  organization  which,  to  a 
certain  extent  depend  upon  the  method  of  presentation  and 
vice  versa.  These  may  be  considered  in  what,  for  want  of 
a  better  name,  may  be  designated  Intermediate  Plan  Form. 
The  following  are  the  factors  to  be  considered: 

Subject  Tools 

Group  or  Block  Materials 

Processes  or  Sequence  Correlations 

of   Operations  Cost 

Method  of  Instruction  Sketches    (Teacher's) 

Projects  to  Cover  Reading  References  (for  Teachers) 

The  outline  may  be  as  follows: 

Example   1. 

Subject:      Story    Telling;    Expressional    or    Illustrative    Hand- 
work. 
I.    Group.       Paper    Cutting    and    Poster    Making,     Stories, 
Grade  I. 
//.    Projects.     Various  incidents  connected  with  the  Story  of 

the  Three  Bears. 
///.    Processes.     Paper  cutting,  mounting  cuttings. 
IV.    Method  of  Instruction. 

Story  of  the  Three  Bears  developed  by  members  of  the 
class,  if  possible.    If  not,  to  be  told  by  teacher.     By  ques- 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 169 

tion  and  answer,  develop  idea  of  incident  or  incidents  to 
be  illustrated. 

Develop  ideas  of  number  of  bears,  sizes,  etc. 
Develop   idea  of  number  of  chairs,   sizes  and  condition, 
etc.,  those  things  which  are  to  enter  into  illustrating  the 
incident  chosen  or  agreed  upon  by  the  children. 
Which   bear's   chair  was    damaged   most?     How   will   it 
look?  etc. 

How  do  chairs  look?    How  do  bears  look? 
Develop  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  children  to  make 
cuttings. 

Develop  the  idea  of  relative  spacings  and  placmgs  of  the 
objects  which  are  to  make  up  the  incident.     Tnstruct  the 
class  about  the  cutting.     Show  the  class  how  the  pasting 
is  to  be  done. 
V.    Tools.    Scissors. 

VI.    Materials.     Rough  gray  paper,  or  scrap  paper;  paste. 
VII.    Correlations.    Language,  number  work,  nature,  home  in- 
terests. 
VIII.    Cost.       lc  or  less. 

IX.    Sketches.      Teacher's    sketches    or    cuttings   to    illustrate, 
when  necessary,  certain  obscure  parts  or  facts  or  forms. 
X.    Reading  References. 

Example  2. 
Subject:    Technical  Manual  Arts. 

Paper   and    Cardboard   Construction,    Grade    I. 
/.    Group.    Mounting  Folders.- 
//.    Processes.    Cf.  Buxton  and  Curran,  Paper  and  Cardboard 

Construction,  p.  19. 
///.    Method  of  Instruction. 

Develop  the  idea  of  need  for  folders;  a  means  of  caring 
for  story  cuttings,  etc. 
Demonstration  of  new  processes  in  detail. 
IV.    Projects.    Single-fold   folder. 
Double-fold. 
Triple-fold. 
V.    Tools.     Scissors;  rule  marked  only  in  inches;  pencil. 
VI.    Materials.     Rough  gray  cover  paper,  6x9;  paste. 
VII.    Correlations. 

Folder     to    hold    expressional    manual     arts     work    in 
language,  etc. 
Number  work. 
VIII.    Cost. 
IX.    Sketches.      Single- fold,    double-fold,    triple-fold;    dimen- 
sioned. 
X.    References.     Buxton  and  Curran,  Paper  and  Cardboard 
Construction,  pp.  18,  19,  etc. 
8.     Daily   Lesson    Plan.     With   the   larger   outline  plan 

showing  in  a  general  way  the  proposed  arrangement  of  sub- 


170         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

ject-matter  for  a  year  or  a  number  of  years,  and  the  interme- 
diate plan  showing  the  essential  factors  necessary  for  a  proper 
preparation  in  the  way  of  equipment,  methods,  correlations, 
etc.,  further  detailing  might  seem  unnecessary.  Teaching  ex- 
perience, however,  will  make  clear  that  it  is  necessary  or  at 
least  advisable  to  prepare  a  daily  lesson  plan. 

Slavish  dependence  upon  form,  it  is  true,  makes  for  loss 
of  vitality  in  teaching,  just  as  in  any  other  kind  of  endeavor. 
A  certain  preacher  in  a  large  city  in  the  Mid-West  once  asked 
another  preacher  of  the  same  city  how  it  happened  the  second 
preacher  always  had  good  audiences  while  he  himself  did  not. 
"I  work  diligently  on  my  sermons,"  the  first  preacher  said, 
"and  carefully  write  them  out  in  full.  Why  is  it  I  cannot 
hold  my  audiences,  and  how  do  you  manage  to  hold  yours?" 
"You  read  your  sermon?"  the  second  preacher  asked.  "Yes." 
"Well,"  the  second  preacher  said,  "I  can  only  state  that  I, 
too,  carefully  prepare  my  sermons,  even  to  writing  them  out 
in  full.  However,  I  never  take  a  manuscript  into  the  pulpit. 
At  most,  I  make  use  of  only  a  few  key  words  as  notes  to 
assist  memory.  These,  I  place  in  an  inconspicuous  place  and 
follow  them  thru  casual  glances  rather  than  thru  direct  ex- 
amination. If  I  have  any  success,  it  must  be  due  to  this." 
It  is  so  in  teaching.  Slavish  dependence  upon  notes,  outlines, 
and  textbooks  "killeth  the  spirit."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
spirit  is  not  likely  to  exercise  itself  very  effectively  unless 
careful  preparation  has  been  made  beforehand. 

The  form  which  follows  is  one  taken  from  the  author's 
Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  and  Mechanical  Drawing. 
Lesson  Outlines,  p.  105.  Any  adequate  understanding  of 
it  will  necessitate  reading  pp.  68-70  of  the  same  text. 

(Woodworking  Group  V.) 

Recitation : 

How  to  proceed  where  there  are  two  or  more  like  parts? 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 171 

The  aim  in  handling  the  different  tools  in   duplicate  work? 

Illustrate. 
How  hold  the  hammer?     Illustrate. 
Nails — How  made  originally?     Forged  and  cut? 
How  are  wire  nails  made? 

Two  classes  and  three  kinds  of  nails?     Differences? 
History  or  meaning  of  10-penny,  etc.? 
How  else  are  nails  designated? 

Preparation  for  Demonstration; 

Assignment  for  Lesson  26  in  Essentials  of  Woodworking,  sec- 
tions 67,  68,  69. 

Demonstration : 

Nailing   position;    withdrawing   nails;    setting   nails. 

Work : 

Group  V. 

The  immediate  problem  here  is  one  of  learning  to  nail, 
withdraw  nails,  set  nails  in  order  the  better  to  construct  a  box. 
The  solution  is  to  be  attained  by  (a)  getting  the  pupils  to 
refresh  their  minds  thru  a  more  or  less  formal  review  of 
some  of  the  material  developed  in  a  lesson  immediately  pre- 
ceding, which  material  is  needed  as  a  basis  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  materials  of  the  new  lesson,  (b)  Thru  suggestions 
contained  in  pictures  and  thru  the  reading  of  that  portion  of 
a  text  bearing  upon  this  immediate  problem,  new  ideas  are 
presented  and  preparation  is  made  for  still  another  method 
of  approach,  namely,  the  demonstration.  The  demonstration 
presents  to  the  mind  of  the  boy  thru  the  eyes,  and,  as  the 
teacher  explains,  thru  the  ears,  what  he  more  or  less  imper- 
fectly got  thru  the  readings  and  pictures.  The  readings  and 
demonstration  give  to  the  boy  the  benefit  of  race  experience 
as  it  has  to  do  with  this  particular  problem  and  make  it  possi- 
ble for  him  thereby  to  reduce  chances  for  error  to  the  lowest 
possible  terms,  (c)  The  boys  next  go  to  the  benches  and 
work  out  the  instruction  in  proper  "form"  of  nailing,  etc., 
thru  trial  and  error. 

In  the  above  mentioned  lesson  we  might  have  considered 


172         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

we  had  a  complete  lesson,  namely,  (1)  the  problem;  (2)  the 
solution;  (3)  the  application.  Most  manual  and  industrial 
arts  teachers  make  use  of  this  type  of  lesson  solely  and  con- 
sider their  task  completed  upon  the  completion  of  a  series  of 
such  lessons.  It  is  better,  however,  that  we  consider  such 
a  lesson  as  incomplete  as  to  the  cycle  making  for  the  highest 
type  of  education.  We  may  consider  that  we  have  steps  (1) 
and  (2) — the  problem  and  its  solution,  the  making  of  the 
particular  box  mentioned  being  merely  a  part  of  the  solu- 
tion, namely,  execution  as  differentiated  from  information. 
Application,  as  conceived  by  Dewey,  does  not  find  a  place  in 
this  particular  lesson.  Opportunity  for  applying  the  informa- 
tion and  skill  developed  in  the  above  lesson,  to  the  working 
out  of  new  and  original  situations  based  upon  this  instruction 
and  experience  must  come  in  later  lessons.  As  such,  this 
lesson  serves  well  to  point  out  the  significance  of  a  statement 
previously  made,  that  not  every  lesson  needs  be  a  completed 
whole,  and  that  certain  lessons  for  a  rather  extended  period 
of  time  may  be  formulated  looking  for  the  completion  of  their 
cycle  in  the  future.  In  this  lesson  we  have  emphasized  in- 
struction in  conventional  method  of  procedure;  the  activity 
consisted  merely  in  trying  to  put  the  technical  information  into 
effect  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher ;  opportunity  for  cre- 
ative effort  based  upon  this  instruction  is  postponed.  There 
is  a  danger,  of  course,  in  too  extended  a  postponement. 

An  examination  of  daily  lesson  outlines,  such  as  can  be 
found  in  other  texts,  will  show  that  a  number  of  forms  are 
possible.  The  essential  thing  is  not  that  the  young  teacher 
follow  the  form  of  any  one  person,  but  that  he  be  made  to  see 
the  necessity  for  some  kind  of  a  form  such  as  will  enable  him 
to  present  his  lessons  from  day  to  day  with  intelligence  and 
understanding,  not  only  each  day's  work,  but  each  day's  work 
with   reference   to  preceding  and   succeeding  days   and   the 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS  173 


year  or  years  as  a  whole.     Education  implies  progression; 
progression  implies  forethought. 

9.  Summary.  Good  teaching  becomes  of  value  just  in 
proportion  as  the  young  teacher  differentiates  ideals,  aims, 
and  the  details  of  preparation  and  presentation  of  subject- 
matter.  Problems  of  organization  of  the  larger  blocks  of 
subject-matter  may  well  be  left  to  organization  and  administra- 
tion; problems  of  detailed  subject-matter  and  of  method  of 
presentation  belong  to  teaching  of  manual  and  industrial  arts. 

For  purposes  of  analysis,  the  followers  of  Herbart  divide 
a  lesson  into  six  parts:  (1)  preparation,  (2)  presentation, 
(3)  comparison,  (4)  abstraction,  (5)  generalization,  (6)  veri- 
fication or  application.  Preparation  consists  in  having  pupils 
recall  to  mind  certain  previous  information  and  experience 
which  information  and  experience  are  necessary  as  a  means 
of  connecting  up  new  information  and  experience  with 
which  it  is  desired  to  acquaint  the  pupils.  Presentation  in 
technical  manual  arts  and  in  industrial  arts  consists  in  con- 
veying to  the  pupils  new  materials  for  assimilation  as  a  basis 
for  steps  to  follow.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  the 
demonstration.  Comparison  consists  in  the  association  of  one 
set  of  experiences  with  another  or  other  sets.  Out  of  this 
comparison  comes  abstraction  of  the  common  element  and 
this  in  turn  is  followed  by  generalization.  Verification  or  ap- 
plication consists  in  taking  such  derived  rules,  principles  and 
ideals,  and  utilizing  them  as  a  means  of  reducing  the  time  of 
experimentation  in  the  meeting  of  new  situations  where  the 
common  element  is  present. 

The  six  formal  steps  are  usually  thought  of  as  inductive  in 
character.  Not  infrequently  the  teacher  cannot  or  does  not 
consider  it  advisable  to  wait  for  the  children  to  make  the 
comparisons,    the    abstractions,    and   the   generalizations,    but 


174         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

tells  them;  in  such  cases  the  method  is  deductive  for  the 
pupils. 

Not  every  lesson  needs  be  inductive;  there  is  a  large  place 
for  the  deductive  type. 

The  method  of  the  six  steps  of  the  followers  of  Herbart 
is  open  to  certain  objections  philosophically.  A  better  con- 
ception is  that  in  which  the  instructive  process  is  considered 
as  "moving"  and  dynamic,  rather  than  set  or  static.  In  this 
newer  conception  there  is  (1)  the  problem;  (2)  the  solution; 
(3)  the  application.  The  young  teacher,  while  he  should  plan 
no  less  carefully,  should  know  that  such  planning  is  valuable, 
not  as  a  cast  iron  mould  into  which  the  happenings  of  the 
lesson  period  are  to  be  compressed,  but  rather  as  a  means  of 
clarifying  his  own  mind  that  he  may  be  the  better  prepared 
to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  which  presents  itself 
as  an  aid  in  expediting  the  solution  of  the  problem  under 
consideration  by  the  class  or  group. 

The  instructive  question  rather  than  the  directive  statement 
should  be  used  in  the  presentation  of  lesson  materials.  Such 
preliminary  and  instructive  questions  will  be  found  aids  in  the 
maintenance  of  discipline. 

Coordinate  with  the  discussion  of  Method  of  Presentation 
are  more  detailed  factors  of  organization,  which  to  a  certain 
extent  depend  upon  method  of  presentation  and  vice  versa. 
These  are  considered  under  what  is  designated,  Intermediate 
Plan  Form. 

Teaching  experience  makes  plain  the  advisability  of  pre- 
paring a  daily  lesson  plan  in  addition  to  the  yearly  outline 
and  the  intermediate  plan.  Slavish  dependence  upon  form 
makes  for  loss  of  vitalness  in  teaching,  just  as  in  other  kinds 
of  endeavor;  it  "killeth  the  spirit."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
spirit  is  not  likely  to  exercise  itself  very  effectively  unless 
careful  preparation  has  been  made  beforehand.     This  is  to 


THE  LESSON— ITS  COMPONENT  PARTS 175 

be  accomplished  in  part  thru  the  daily  lesson  plan.  It  is  not 
essential  that  one  particular  form  be  adopted  by  all;  it  is 
essential  that  some  form  be  used.  Education  implies  pro- 
gression ;  progression  implies  forethought. 

Reference  Reading: 

McMurry:   The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  Chapters  XII,  XIV. 

Dewey:     How  We  Think,  Chapter  XV. 

Charters:    Methods  of  Teaching,  Chapters  XV,  XIX. 

Allen:     The  Instructor,  the  Man  and  the  Job,  Chapters  IX, 

XXX. 
Griffith:     Correlated  Courses,  pp.  68-70,  also  note  pp.  91-132. 

ClabS  Discussion: 

1.  Into  what  divisions  will  you  plan  your  period  given  you  for 
technical  manual  arts? 

2.  Do  you  consider  it  advisable  to  have  such  divisions  in  ex- 
pressional  manual  arts,  or  manual  arts  as  a  means  of  teach- 
ing other  subjects? 

3.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  have  one  division  each  set  aside  for 
the   lesson — recitation   and  demonstration? 

4.  What  percent  of  the  total  time  available  may  profitably  be 
devoted   to   the  lesson? 

5.  Do  you  understand  that  a  demonstration  is  guided  wholly 
by  instructive  statements  or  is  there  a  place  for  the  in- 
structive question? 

6.  Give  examples  showing  the  same  problem  deductively  pre- 
sented and  inductively  presented. 

7.  If  a  textbook  is  in  the  possession  of  each  boy,  what  would 
be  gained  and  what  lost  by  having  a  reading  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter relating  to  the  demonstration  before  the  demon- 
stration is  given? 

8.  If  you  were  asked  to  choose  a  text  would  you  prefer  one 
treating  of  processes  in  general  or  in  connection  with  par- 
ticular projects?     Why,  or  why  not? 

9.  Of  what  practical  value  is  a  knowledge  of  the  six  formal 
steps?     What  objections  are  there  to  their  full  acceptance? 

10.  Develop  a  lesson  plan  after  Professor  Dewey's  conception. 

11.  In  what  manner  will  the  method  of  the  lesson  differ  in  in- 
dustrial arts  teaching  in  the  industrial  school  where  boys 
are  expected  to  enter  low-grade  industrial  activities,  and 
in   industrial    schools   where   the   boys   have    time    to    take 

extended    courses    looking    toward    highly-skilled    and    di- 
rectorate positions? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CLASS    MANAGEMENT — DISCIPLINE 

1.  Maintaining  Order  or  Discipline  a  Matter  of  Instinct 
as  Well  as  of  Training.  Not  infrequently  one  hears  the 
expression,  "Teachers  are  born,  not  made."  An  examination 
of  the  elements  of  strength  of  teachers  to  whom  such  refer- 
ences are  made  will  show  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
it  is  such  teachers'  ability  to  govern  boys  and  girls  evenly 
and  well  that  has  attracted  attention,  and  an  enumeration  of 
such  elements  of  strength  and  weakness  will  reveal  most  of 
them  as  inborn.  Bagley  mentions  the  following  factors  which 
enter  into  the  making  up  of  what  we  call  favorable  teaching 
personality,  arranged  in  what  he  considers  their  order  of 
importance:      (1)    address    (manner    of    meeting    people); 

(2)  personal  appearance;  (3)  optimism;  (4)  reserve  (dig- 
nity); (5)  enthusiasm;  (6)  fairness  (objective  attitude); 
(7)  sincerity;  (8)  sympathy;  (9)  vitality  (vigorous  person- 
ality) ;  (10)  scholarship.  The  following  factors  making  for 
unfavorable  teaching  personality  are  also  mentioned :  ( 1 )  hesi- 
tation;    (2)     manifestation    of    temper    before    the    class; 

(3)  tactlessness  (failure  to  get  pupils'  point  of  view  about 
trivial  things ;  failure  to  utilize  dormant  tendencies ;  failure 
to  "explain"  to  parents)  ;  (4)  failure  to  institute  definite  order 
of  procedure;  (5)  lack  of  "teaching  voice"  (shrill,  high 
pitched;  noisy;  thin,  feeble,  with  poor  enunciation,  monoto- 
nous delivery  which  puts  to  sleep.)  While  a  teacher  may, 
thru  conscious  control,  modify  unfavorable  natural  tenden- 
cies, he  will  never  work  so  successfully  nor  so  easily  as  one 
possessed  of  favorable  natural  tendencies. 

2.  Successful  Discipline,  to  a  Large  Degree,  the  Result 
of  Thoughtful  Management.    Successful  discipline,  other 

176 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT— DISCIPLINE 177 

things  being  equal,  is,  according  to  Thorndike,  the  result  of 
(1)  keeping  each  child  occupied  with  work  which  holds  the 
interest  of  the  majority  of  the  class  at  least ;  (2)  maintaining 
standards  which  make  the  majority  of  the  class  feel  that  they 
have  to  apply  themselves  if  they  are  to  receive  the  awards 
which  go  to  good  students;  (3)  making  use  of  friendly 
rivalry;  (4)  placing  individual  responsibility,  as  in  individual 
assignment;  (5)  having  a  time  schedule  and  working  to  it 
at  full  steam  ahead  until  the  period  is  up;  (6)  having  the 
work  progressive  always. 

3.  The  Law  of  Association  Applicable  to  Control  of 
Conduct.  If  a  teacher  wishes  a  pupil  or  pupils  to  react 
in  a  given  manner  to  a  given  stimulus,  he  will  see  to  it  that 
conditions  are  so  set  that  the  desired  reaction  shall  follow  the 
given  stimulus  with  frequency,  recency,  intensity,  and  result- 
ing satisfaction.  If  an  undesirable  connection  has  been  formed 
it  is  to  be  broken  thru  disuse,  or  substitution,  or  inhibition. 

4.  General  Causes  for  an  Unruly  School.  According  to 
Bagley,  the  most  frequent  causes  for  an  unruly  school  are: 
(1)  harshness  and  unsympathetic  treatment;  (2)  indulgence 
and  weakness  of  control;  (3)  inadequate  preparation  and 
brief  tenure  of  teachers. 

5.  Specific  Problems  of  Control.  Experience  as  super- 
visor of  practice  teaching  in  manual  arts  will  serve  to  point 
out  the  futility  of  trying  to  deal  in  any  extended  way  with 
specific  problems  of  control,  elements  of  strength  and  weak- 
ness vary  so  greatly  in  young  teachers.  The  chief  source  of 
difficulty  is  not  that  young  teachers  do  not  know  what  factors 
make  for  success  and  what  for  failure,  but  that  they  lack  in 
ideals  or  standards.  The  development  of  such  ideals  is  a 
matter  of  time  and  association  and  cannot  be  handed  out 
ready  made.  If  students  have  been  accustomed  to  college 
teachers,  whom  they  respect,  talking,  while  teaching,  with 


178        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

toothpick  in  hand,  or  hands  thrust  deep  in  trouser  pockets, 
or  cigarettes  alight,  they  are  likely,  other  things  being  equal, 
to  have  no  higher  standards  when  they  go  out  to  teach. 
There  are  a  few  things  which  most  young  teachers  of  technical 
manual  arts  may  well  be  advised  about.  A  number  of  these 
the  author  has  treated  in  the  assignment  in  Correlated. Courses 
in  Woodwork  and  Mechanical  Drawing,  pp.  65-68;  the  dis- 
cussion of  a  few  others  follows: 

In  nearly  every  class  there  will  be  found  the  occasional  fel- 
low who  does  not  choose  to  follow  instructions,  or  to  make 
desired  connections.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  whenever  it 
can  be  done,  for  the  instructor  to  go  quietly  to  such  a  one 
and  attend  to  him  without  attracting  the  attention  of  the  class  ; 
a  softly  spoken,  kindly,  but  firm  address  is  usually  sufficient. 
If  the  challenge  is  an  open  one  then  the  instructor,  if  he  is 
wise,  will  single  out  the  offending  individual  and  treat  him 
as  an  individual.  Even  where  a  number  of  pupils  are  guilty, 
singling  out  one  is  strongly  advised.  It  does  little  good,  ordi- 
narily, to  scold  a  class,  or  to  scold  a  few  thru  scolding  a  class. 
The  fact  that  there  are  other  guilty  ones  does  not  in  any  way 
excuse  the  one  called  out.  He  may  be  given  to  understand  that 
he  is  responsible  for  himself  alone,  and  that  the  instructor 
will  attend  to  the  others  in  his  own  time  and  way.  Boys 
quickly  learn  that  in  union  there  is  strength.  The  wise 
teacher  will  do  well  to  deal  with  each  individually. 

The  almost  universal  resort  of  a  young  teacher  in  dealing 
with  an  offending  pupil  is  to  tell  him  to  leave  the  room. 
Unless  some  provision  has  been  made  beforehand  for  the 
care  of  pupils  so  banished,  the  cure  is  worse  than  no  atten- 
tion at  all.  Pupils  so  banished  to  the  halls  soon  find  com- 
panionship or  at  least  leisure  time  for  play.  Resulting  satis- 
faction usually  follows,  for  in  most  communities,  the  severest 
punishment   falls   short  of   counterbalancing  the  pleasure  or 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT— DISCIPLINE 179 

satisfaction  which  comes  from  class  attention  or  notoriety 
and  being  sent  to  the  hall  with  its  leisure.  A  better  plan  is 
to  have  such  an  offending  member  seated  at  one  side  of  the 
room  where  he  cannot  trouble  his  fellows,  with  nothing  to 
do.  After  a  short  time  at  this  "occupation"  he  will  usually 
ask  permission  to  return  to  his  work;  few  boys  can  stand 
inactivity  long.  With  such  a  request  once  made,  the  teacher 
can  quickly  determine  whether  the  offender  means  business 
or  not,  and  can  act  accordingly.  This  treatment  is  only  for 
the  occasional  offender.  If  any  considerable  number  offend, 
it  is  an  indication  in  all  probability  that  something  is  wrong 
with  the  teacher  and  his  plans.  Where  reasonable  interest 
abounds  there  is  likely  to  be  no  problem  of  discipline  for  any 
considerable  number. 

A  very  common  source  of  trouble  for  a  beginning  teacher 
is  his  lack  of  foresight  in  instructing  his  class  to  the  effect 
that  when  he  asks  a  question  of  the  class  no  boy  is  to  answer 
aloud  until  his  name  is  called.  Boys  of  grammar  school  age 
like  nothing  better  than  to  confuse  a  young  teacher  who  asks 
questions  of  a  class  without  preliminary  instruction,  by  each 
and  all  answering  and  continuing  to  answer,  ever  louder  as 
other  members  repeat.  The  confusion  becomes  deafening 
and  the  young  teacher  finds  himself  helpless  because  unable 
to  make  himself  heard  in  the  hubbub  he  unwittingly  started. 

Children  are  quick  to  detect  elements  of  strength  and  re- 
serve power  in  a  teacher.  They  seldom  or  never  as  a  class 
take  for  granted  the  possession  of  such  elements  except  as 
they  are  manifested  thru  trial.  They  are  strangely  alert  and 
intelligent  concerning  the  justness  or  unjustness  of  a  teacher's 
rulings.  They  are  strangely  merciless  toward  a  teacher  show- 
ing signs  of  weakness  and  lack  of  character  or  reserve  force. 
To  maintain  a  proper  balance  between  a  freedom  which  will 
develop  individual  moral  independence  and  a  sense  of  social 


180        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


justice  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  restrictions  that  will 
prevent  license  and  interference  with  the  teaching  and  learn- 
ing process,  is  no  small  problem.  It  is  a  problem  which 
challenges  the  best  of  teachers.  Withal,  Thorndike's  state- 
ment with  reference  to  interest  may  with  equal  propriety  be 
applied  here :  "Get  the  right  thing  done  at  any  cost,  but  get 
it  done  with  as  little  inhibition  and  strain  as  possible."  Make 
use  of  authority,  if  necessary,  but  only  as  a  last  resort.  At 
best,  it  is  but  a  temporary  measure  to  tide  over  until  the  pupil 
can  be  induced  to  want  to  do  the  right  thing. 

6.  Summary.  An  examination  of  the  elements  of 
strength  and  weakness  of  teachers  in  the  matter  of  class  man- 
agement will  show  that  the  great  majority  of  these  are  inborn 
or  instinctive.  While  a  teacher  may,  thru  conscious  control, 
modify  unfavorable  tendencies,  he  will  never  work  so  suc- 
cessfully nor  so  easily  as  one  possessed  of  favorable  ten- 
dencies. 

Success  in  maintaining  discipline,  other  things  being  equal, 
is  the  result  of  thoughtful  management. 

The  law  of  association  applies  to  control  of  conduct.  If  a 
teacher  wishes  to  have  pupils  react  in  a  given  manner  to  a 
given  stimulus,  he  will  see  to  it  that  conditions  are  so  set  that 
the  desired  reactions  shall  follow  the  given  stimulus  with 
frequency,  recency,  intensity,  and  resulting  satisfaction.  If 
an  undesirable  connection  has  been  formed,  it  is  to  be  broken 
up  thru  disuse,  or  substitution,  or  inhibition. 

According  to  Bagley,  the  most  frequent  causes  for  an  un- 
ruly school  are  (1)  harshness  and  unsympathetic  treatment; 
(2)  indulgence  and  weakness  of  control;  (3)  inadequate 
preparation  and  a  brief  tenure  of  teachers. 

With  reference  to  specific  problems  of  control,  it  may  be 
said  that  it  does  little  good  to  scold  a  class  or  to  scold  a  few 
members  thru  scolding  the  class.     Unless  some  provision  has 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT— DISCIPLINE  181 


been  made  for  caring  for  pupils  so  dealt  with,  it  is  poor 
policy  to  send  pupils  to  the  corridors  as  a  means  of  getting 
them  out  of  the  room.  A  wise  teacher  will  not  put  questions 
to  a  class  without  having  first  instructed  them  not  to  reply 
until  called  upon  individually  after  a  question  has  been  put. 
It  is  well  for  the  young  teacher  to  remember  that  to  properly 
maintain  a  balance  between  freedom  which  will  develop  indi- 
vidual moral  independence  and  a  sense  of  social  justice  and 
at  the  same  time  maintain  restrictions  that  will  prevent  license 
and  interference  with  the  learning  and  teaching  process,  is  no 
small  problem.  Make  use  of  authority  if  necessary,  but  only 
as  a  last  resort. 


Reference  Reading: 

Thorndike:     Principles  of   Teaching,  pp.    179-187. 
James:     Talks  to   Teachers,  Chapter  XV. 
Bagley:     School  Discipline. 
Griffith:     Correlated  Courses,  pp.  65-68. 


Class  Discussion: 

1.  Thorndike  says,  "The  law  of  selective  thinking  applies  to 
conduct."  State  this  law  and  explain  its  practical  signifi- 
cance. 

2.  State  the  law  of  suggestion  as  it  applies  to  conduct,  and 
explain  its  practical  significance. 

3.  Successful  discipline  is  to  a  large  degree  the  result  of 
thoughtful  management.  The  secret  of  success,  other 
things  being  equal,  is  the  result  of  (1)  keeping  each  child 
occupied  with  work  which  holds  the  interest,  at  least  of 
the  majority  of  the  class;  (2)  maintaining  standards  which 
make  the  majority  of  the  class  feel  that  they  have  to  apply 
themselves  if  they  are  to  secure  the  rewards  of  a  good 
student;  (3)  making  use  of  friendly  rivalry;  (4)  placing 
individual  responsibility,  as  in  individual  assignment;  (5) 
having  a  time  schedule  and  working  to  it  "at  full  steam 
ahead"  until  the  period  is  up ;  (6)  having  'the  work  pro- 
gressive always. 

Make  application  to  the  manual  arts  indicating  just  how 
you  expect  to  utilize  each. 

4.  Bagley  mentions  the  following  as  general  causes  of  an 
unruly  school:  (1)  harshness  and  unsympathetic  treatment; 
(2)    indulgence  and  weakness  of  control;    (3)    inadequate 


182        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


preparation  and  brief  tenure  of  teachers.    Illustrate  each  in 
some  specific  manual  arts  teaching. 

5.  Many  young  teachers,  when  sorely  pressed,  will  send  an 
unruly  pupil  out  of  the  room  into  the  corridor.  Would 
you?     Discuss. 

6.  Pass  judgment  upon  the  rule  so  often  found  in  elementary 
shops:  "Talking  is  permissible  so  long  as  it  does  not  in- 
terfere with  the  work." 

7.  Can  you  see  any  possible  danger  in  the  young  teacher's 
putting  questions  to  the  class  as  a  whole  instead  of  to  some 
individual  ? 

8.  What  do  you  expect  to  use  as  a  final  means  of  inhibiting 
undesirable  tendencies?  (Suppose  corporal  punishment  is 
absolutely  forbidden.) 

9.  Which  do  you  expect  to  employ,  your  authority  as  a  teacher 
or  the  innate  sense  of  honor  upon  the  part  of  the  pupils 
to  get  results  compatible  with  good  scholarship  and  good 
citizenship? 

10.  A  shop  tool  is  missed,  would  you  make  the  class  as  a  whole 
pay  for  it  in  case  it  cannot  be  found?  (Collective  repara- 
tion  for  collective  offenses.) 

11.  Do  you  expect  to  find  the  rules  in  college  applicable  in 
grammar  schools? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

STANDARDS  AND  TESTS 

I.  Teacher  Standards.  Much  work  remains  to  be  done 
before  it  can  be  said  there  is  a  scientific  basis  for  teacher 
standards.  The  accompanying  factors  are  considered  by 
supervisors  of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  public  schools  in  esti- 
mating the  value  of  a  teacher  to  the  system.  While  the  score 
card  is  made  for  teachers  of  all  kinds  of  work,  it  ought  to 
prove  suggestive  and  helpful  to  the  teacher  of  manual  or  indus- 
trial arts  who  cares  to  know  what  elements  are  being  consid- 
ered by  his  superiors.  One  who  forms  a  habit  of  thinking 
of  teaching  efficiency  in  terms  of  the  various  factors  which 
go  to  make  up  such  efficiency  will  be  much  more  likely  to  be 
correct  in  his  judgment  than  one  who  depends  upon  snap 
judgment. 

DETAILS  OF  RATING 

I.     Personal    Equipment — 

1.  General  appearance;  2.  Voice;  3.  Natural  aptitude  for 
teaching;   4.   Accuracy;   5.   Industry;  6.    Enthusiasm   and 
optimism ;  7.  Integrity  and  sincerity ;  8.  Promptness. 
II.     Social   and   Professional   Equipment — ' 

9.  Courtesy  to  associates,  pupils  and  patrons;  10.  Under- 
standing of  children;  11.  Ability  to  meet  and  interest 
patrons ;  12.  Interest  in  lives  of  pupils ;  13.  Cooperation 
and  loyalty ;  14  Professional  interest  and  growth ;  15  Daily 
preparation;  16.  Use  of  English;  17.  Accuracy  of  knowl- 
edge;  18.  Breadth  of  scholarship. 

III.  Administrative   Technic — 

19.  Care  of  light,  heat  and  ventilation;  20.  Neatness  of 
room ;  21.  Discipline  and  governing  skill ;  22.  Initiative  and 
Self-reliance;  23.  Adaptability  and  resourcefulness;  24. 
Self-control;  25.  Tact;  26.  Sense  of  justice;  27.  Economy 
of  time. 

IV.  Teaching  Technic — 

28.  Definiteness  and  clearness  of  aim;  29.  Skill  in  habit 
formation;  30.  Skill  in  stimulating  thought;  31.  Skill  in 
teaching  how  to  study;  32.  Skill  in  questioning;  33.  Choice 
of    subject-matter;    34.    Organization    of    subject-matter; 

183 


184         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

35.  Care  in  the  assignment  of  lessons ;  36.  Skill  in  motivat- 
ing work;  37.  Attention  to  individual  needs. 
V.    Results— 

38.  Attention  and  response  of  class;  39.  Growth  of  pupils 
in  subject  matter;  40.  General  development  of  pupils;  41. 
General  influence. 

2.  Standards  of  Pupil  Accomplishment  in  Manual  Arts 
by  Grades.  The  following  very  excellent  charting  of  hand- 
work accomplishment  by  grades  appears  in  Handwork  in 
Religious  Education  by  Addie  Grace  Wardle,  and  is  repro- 
duced here  by  permission  of  The  University  of  Chicago  Press. 
It  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  Outline  for  Grades 
I  to  VI,  Outlines  in  Teaching  Manual  Arts,  Appendix  II. 

KINDERGARTEN  : 

(a)     Interest : 

1.  Handling  of  material. 

2.  Changing  forms  as  accompaniment  of  pupil's  changing 
thought. 

3.  Imagination  basal. 

4.  Nothing  intermediate  between  idea  and  result. 

(b)  Ability  to  be  Cultivated. 

1.  Free  constructive  ability. 

2.  Not  imposed  plans,  not  value  attached  to  results. 

3.  Thinking  naturally   in   art   expression — tendency   to   ex- 
press in  symbols  as  well  as  in  words. 

4.  Knowledge   of    simple    forms    and    recognition   of   their 
representation. 

5.  Recognition  of  simple  colors  and  their  use  for  blocking 
in  representation. 

(c)  Work  to  be  Given. 

1.  Free  drawing  with  pencil — suggestions  but  not  patterns 
— and  free  construction  work. 

2.  Crayola — rubbed  surfaces  out  of  which  figures  are  cut. 

3.  Coloringt  with  crayolas  within  drawn  patterns. 

4.  Coloring  prints. 

5.  Simple  water-color  washes. 

6.  Mounting  of  pictures. 

7.  Border  designs — simple. 

8.  Simple  paper  cuttings  and  tearings. 

GRADES    I-II 

(a)  Interest  same  as  above.     A  little  additional  value  attached 
to  results. 

(b)  Ability  to  be  cultivated: 

Readiness    to    illustrate    ideas,    however    crudely— drawing 
used  as  a  language. 


STANDARDS  AND   TESTS 185 

(c)     Work  to  be  Given. 

1.  Rapid  use  (molding)  of  materials,  such  as  sand  and  clay. 

2.  Border  designs  as  frames,  pictures  and  paper-cutting. 

3.  Simple  pictures  for  crayola,  blackboard,  and  water-color 
work. 

4.  Collections   of   colors,   flowers,   papers,   etc. 

5.  Paper-cutting  and  tearing  and  their  mounting. 

6.  Simple  paper  folding. 

7.  Beginning  of  work  in  wood  and  reed. 

GRADES  III-V 

(a)  Interest  : 

1.  Not  satisfied  with  transformation  of  material  by  imagina- 
tion. 

2.  Results  become  important;  permanency  and  use  impor- 
tant. 

3.  Intermediate  means   of  attaining  results,   the  object  of 
attention. 

4.  Organized  activity   (age  of  organized  play). 

5.  Larger  use  of  tools — skill  in  use  a  matter  of  concern. 

6.  Desire  to   represent   truthfully  and  to  picture  different 
effects. 

(b)  Ability  to  be  cultivated: 

1.  Use  of  patterns,  designs — to  shape  materials  as  prede- 
termined. 

2.  Care  and  skill  in  use  of  tools — ability  to  express  a  given 
thought  with  increasing  completeness. 

3.  Some  intellectual  control — thinking  things  out  ahead. 

4.  Discrimination  of  colors. 

5.  Correct   judgment    of   general    proportions    by   the    eye 
rather  than  by  measurements. 

(c)  Work  to  be  given: 

1.  Simple   geometric   relations   of  vertical,  horizontal,   and 
parallel  as  involved  in  simple  drawings. 

2.  Rhythmic  arrangement  in  border  and  surface  patterns. 

3.  Pleasing  arrangements  within  enclosed  spaces,  etc. 

4.  Bilateral  symmetry  and  its  methods. 

5.  Collection  of  samples  for  color  groups.     Discrimination 
in  sorting  colors. 

6.  Arranging  colors. 

a.  Complementary  color   schemes. 

b.  Value  schemes. 

7.  Appearance  of  objects  in  different  positions. 

8.  Modification  of  natural  forms  for  designs. 

9.  Interpretative  images   (type  forms). 

a.  Geometric  relations. 

b.  Animal  forms. 

c.  Plant  forms. 

d.  Forms  of  rectilinear  and  curvilinear  construction, 
10.  Simple  map  constructions. 


186         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

11.  Coping-saw   work. 

12.  More    difficult   construction   work. 

13.  Beginning  of  written  work  creation. 

GRADES  VI-VIII 

(a)  Interest: 

1.  Sustained  purpose — a  final  end. 

2.  Accuracy   according  to   pattern  or  idea,   conformity  to 
reality. 

3.  Interest  in  real  life,  deflection  from  school. 

4.  Sympathetic  interest  in  art  activities  of  others — historical 
and  practical. 

(b)  Ability  to  be  cultivated: 

1.  Use  of  drawing  as  a  means  of  explanation  and  descrip- 
tion. 

2.  Clear,  visual  patterns. 

3.  Orthographic  reading. 

4.  Rapid  sketching. 

5.  Accurate  scientific  sketching. 

6.  Good  taste  in  beauty  of  form  and  harmony  of  color. 

7.  Knowledge  of  art  history  and  art  as  a  vocation. 

(c)  Work  to  be  given: 

1.  Geographical  drawings  and  map  modelings. 

2.  Flower   and   plant   shadow   pictures    for    foreshortening 
and   delicacy. 

3.  Blueprints  (for  nature  study). 

4.  Different  arrangement  of  leaf,  flower,  or  object  drawn. 

5.  Matching  in   water-colors   the   colors   of  plants,   etc. 

6.  Balancing  in   design,  also  more  bilateral   symmetry. 

7.  Appreciation  of  demands  and  limitations  of  decorative 
work. 

8.  Perfect  matching  of  color  by  mixing  of  water-colors. 

9.  Development  of  intensity  color  schemes. 

10.  Representation  of  moods  of  nature  effects. 

11.  "Rapid   descriptive   sketches,   well   constructed   drawings, 
truthful  records  of  observations." 

12.  Completed  pictures  in  pencil,  crayon,  or  water-color. 

13.  Careful   constructional   work. 

s  14.  Advanced  work  in  the  crafts :   bookbinding,   woodwork, 

!  reed  and  raffia  work. 

\S.  Landscape  sand  modeling. 

3.     Specific  Standards  and  Tests.     No  small  amount  of 

work  has  been  done  in  academic  work,  along  certain  lines 

in  an  effort  to  provide  a  more  scientific  basis  for  evaluating 

pupil  work.     Scales  of  more  or  less  value  have  been  worked 

out   for  such  subjects  as  composition,  handwriting,  number 

work.     In  manual  arts  little  has  been  done  toward  setting 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS 187 

up  uniform  objective  standards ;  each  teacher  has  been  a  law 
unto  himself,  marking  pupil  work  as  his  feelings  dictated. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  no  perfectly  objective  set  of  stan- 
dards of  universal  application  can  be  secured.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  do  something  toward  setting  up  certain  standards, 
and  an  attempt  will  be  made  herewith  to  point  out  a  method 
of  attack  which  any  teacher  may  use  in  his  efforts  to  inject 
a  little  more  science  into  his  system,  or  lack  of  system  of 
marking.  In  Chapter  II,  manual  arts  was  differentiated  into 
(1)  expressional  or  motor  expression,  (2)  technical  or  motor 
education.  Technical  manual  arts  or  motor  education  was 
subdivided  into  considerations  of  form  and  technic,  and  exe- 
cution and  skill.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  motor 
expression  was  said  to  be  spontaneity,  that  of  form  and  technic 
was  said  to  be  instruction,  while  execution  and  skill  were 
said  to  be  characterized  by  trial  and  error.  A  third  division 
of  the  manual  arts  might  have  been  made,  as  motor  expres- 
sion based  upon  motor  education,  the  characteristic  of  which 
would  be  creative  effort  based  upon  knowledge  and  skill. 

The  subject  of  standards  and  tests  in  motor  expression  or 
expressional  manual  arts  may  be  dismissed  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  pupil  has  done  all  that  is  to  be  expected  in  any 
given  piece  of  expressional  work  when  the  idea  or  ideas  to 
be  expressed  are  clearly  evident  to  other  members  of  the 
class  and  when  the  pupil  has  exercised  such  technical  skill 
as  is  needed  for  the  purpose  in  hand.  Evaluation  of  technical 
skill  in  expressional  work  will  have  to  be  determined  in  the 
light  of  the  amount  of  technical  training  the  pupil  has  had  up 
to  the  time  of  the  given  expressional  lesson.  For  example, 
let  it  be  a  fifth  grade  problem  in  "Sketches  to  Illustrate  His- 
tory, Stories  of  the  Romans,"  Appendix  II.  Certainly,  such 
sketches,  while  illustrative,  should  not  only  convey  the  ideas 
intended  with  clearness  and  exactitude,  but  should  also  show 


188        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

a  technical  superiority  over  those  of  first  grade  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  or  degree  of  technical  instruction  in  drawing 
and  representation. 

4.  Standards  for  Form  and  Technic.  Form  and  technic 
have  to  do  with  ideas  and  with  instruction.  The  woodworker 
has  a  certain  order  of  procedure  in  squaring-up  a  piece  of 
stock,  in  laying  out  and  making  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  etc. 
These  methods  of  procedure  are  not  arbitrary  but  are  the 
results  of  race  experiences  in  working  wood  wherein  methods 
which  reduce  possible  chances  for  error  to  a  minimum  have 
been  evolved.  Good  form  and  technic  represent  the  science 
of  an  activity,  and  have  their  basis  in  reason. 

What  shall  determine  standards  for  form  and  technic  in 
any  line  of  endeavor?  Evidently  an  analysis  of  trade  prac- 
tice itself  will  give  us  such  standards.  Formerly,  much  of  the 
form  of  the  trades  could  be  obtained  only  by  word  of  mouth. 
Today  much  good  work  has  been  done  and  is  being  done  in 
the  matter  of  recording  in  book  form  the  form  of  the  various 
trades.  Any  good  text,  then,  dealing  with  the  principles  of 
working  the  materials  of  a  craft  will  provide  proper  standards 
for  form  as  it  has  to  do  with  that  craft. 

There  remains  the  determining  of  certain  minimal  essen- 
tials for  each  grade  for  each  kind  or  type  of  school.  What, 
for  example,  may  we  reasonably  expect  a  boy  to  know  about 
the  principles  of  working  wood  after  a  year  in  the  7th  grade 
with  2y2  hours  a  week  devoted  to  systematic  working  of 
wood?  An  examination  of  the  Lesson  Outlines,  Correlated 
Courses,  pp.  91-132,  will  indicate  what  one  teacher  thinks 
pupils  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  know  after  certain 
hours  spent  in  certain  grades  upon  certain  kinds  of  work. 

5.  Tests  for  Form  and  Technic.  Since  form  has  to  do 
with  ideas,  in  so  far  as  relation  of  teacher  to  pupil  is  con- 
cerned, the  oral  and  written  quiz  with  final  examination  pro- 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS 189 

vide  a  test  for  form.  The  recitation,  discussed  in  Chapter  XII, 
is  merely  a  testing  of  recollection  of  form  thru  the  oral  quiz. 
The  reasons  shop  men  neglect  to  test  form  are  two — first, 
they  fail  to  appreciate  the  need  for  having  pupils  hold  in 
memory  knowledge  of  correct  form,  and,  second,  the  shop 
time  is  so  short  they  dislike  to  utilize  any  of  it  for  mental 

WOODWORK  la 
Quiz  No.  2.    Name 

1.  Large  squares  of  one  piece  of  steel  are  called 

The  long  arm  is  called  the 

and  the  short  arm  the 

2.  Dividers  are  used  for  (1) 

(2) , (3) 

3.  Pencil  lines  are  easiest  removed  from  wood  by  means  of 

should  never  be 

sandpapered. 

4.  Four  steps  in  putting  a  saw  in  order  are  (1) 

(2) 

(3) (4) 

5.  In  all  duplicate  work  the  aim  of  the  worker  should  be 

before  laying  it  down  and  taking 

up  another. 

6.  A  wire  gage  for  nails  differs  from  a  screw  gage  in  that 

7.  Some  of  the  parts  to  a  lathe  are  ( 1 ) (2) 

(3) (4) (5) (6) 

(7) (8) (9) (10) 

(11) (12) (13) (14) 

All  shearing  cuts  in  turning  depend  for  success  upon  keeping  the 
bevel  or  grind to  the  surface  cut. 

Fig.  24.    Blank  Quiz. 

tests.     The  argument  for  having  pupils  "keep  the  memory 

processes  open"  as  regards  form  and  technic  will  be  presented 

in  the  chapter  following.     Fig.  24  is  an  example  of  a  blank 

quiz,  the  use  of  which  makes  the  element  of  time  utilized  for 

testing  form  a  negligible  one.     Such  quizes  are  made  out  by 

the  teacher  in  multigraphed  form.     The  student  has  merely 

to  fill  in  the  appropriate  word  or  words.     The  exact  words 

of  the  text  are  not  demanded,  but  only  such  words  as  convey 

the  proper  meaning.     Such  tests  can  be  completed  in  not  to 

exceed  five  minutes.     Pupils  who  cannot  complete  them  in  a 


190         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

reasonable  time  should  be  required  to  hand  them  in  anyway. 
Not  infrequently  the  time  required  to  answer  is  indicated  upon 
each  paper  and  the  paper  weighted  somewhat  accordingly.  A 
second  advantage  of  the  blank  quiz  lies  in  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  graded.  The  teacher  merely  marks  the  errors,  counts 
them  and  the  number  so  resulting  serves  to  rank  the  student 
among  his  fellows. 

Such  tests  should  not  be  mistaken  for  other  than  tests  of 
memory,  or  recollection  of  form.  A  second  test,  a  test  for 
technic,  which  is  form  in  use,  should  consist  of  observation 
at  stated  intervals  of  the  manner  in  which  students  apply 
this  knowledge  in  execution.  It  is  possible  that  so  high  a 
correlation  exists  between  application  of  proper  form,  or 
technic,  and  excellence  of  material  result  that  such  observa- 
tional tests  may  safely  be  omitted.  Teaching  experience  seems 
to  indicate  the  advisability  of  such  observational  tests,  espe- 
cially with  the  younger  pupils. 

6.     Standards   and   Tests  for   Skill   in   Execution.     The 

factors  which  enter  into  the  making  of  excellence  in  execution 
are  many.  So  many,  in  fact  that  the  only  hope  of  constructing 
a  workable  set  of  standards  and  tests  lies  in  the  ability  to 
discover  correlations  between  factors  such  that  the  number 
may  be  reduced  to  a  reasonable  set.  The  factors  most  com- 
monly considered  are  (1)  speed,  (2)  accuracy,  (3)  neatness. 
Only  in  the  most  general  and  unscientific  way  have  standards 
been  set  for  any  of  these  factors  for  various  grades  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  schools.  It  may  be  that  it  is  not  possible  or 
desirable  to  reduce  manual  arts  to  the  necessity  of  meeting 
the  demands  of  standards  and  tests  of  a  scientific  character. 
Certainly  there  is  need  for  more  uniformity  as  to  standards 
and  tests  than  now  exists  in  manual  arts  teaching. 

Standards  for  time  exist  in  practically  all  kinds  of  trade 
work.     Any.  hand-book  on  cost  data  will  give  standard  time 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS 191 

allowances  for  various  kinds  of  work.  For  example,  a  car- 
penter is  expected,  standard  time,  to  place  1000  ft.  of 
2"x4"  wall  studs  in  32  hrs. ;  1000  shingles  on  plain  roof  in 
3^2  hrs.,  etc.  Some  men  will  place  more,  some  less,  but 
a  reasonable  time  allowance  is  as  given.  Evidently,  the  tool 
for  testing  time  is  the  watch  or  clock.  This  is  what  is  known 
as  an  objective  test;  it  is  a  matter  of  fact,  not  of  opinion. 

Accuracy  or  skill  in  execution  in  the  trades,  we  are  told, 
must  be  100%  perfect.  That  is,  a  printer  is  not  excused  be- 
cause he  has  allowed  only  one  misspelled  word  to  creep  into 
the  final  form  of  the  book.  Of  course,  among  the  different 
trades  there  are  variations  in  requirements.  Carpenters  are 
not  supposed  to  be  satisfied  with  a  joint  unless  it  fits  snugly 
at  all  points.  A  machinist  may  be  required  to  work  within 
the  1/1000  of  an  inch,  a  carpenter  never.  This  100%  perfec- 
tion, then,  is  relative.  What  is  meant  is  not  absolute  perfec- 
tion of  standards,  but  perfection  of  attainment  which  approxi- 
mates closely  standards  set  in  the  trades.  Tests  usually  applied 
in  woodwork  are  for  accuracy  of  dimensions — length,  width, 
thickness ;  for  squareness ;  for  straightness.  Tests  for  dimen- 
sions will  be  made  with  the  rule,  tests  for  squareness  with 
the  try-square,  tests  for  straightness  with  a  straight-edge  for 
objective  test  and  by  sighting  with  the  eye  for  subjective  test. 

Neatness  is  more  difficult  to  measure.  The  eye  alone  is 
used  to  determine  the  general  appearance  of  a  project,  whether 
plane  marks  are  left  on  surfaces,  whether  arrises  are  kept 
sharp  and  clean,  whether  corners  are  split,  etc.  Only  as  the 
eye,  or  the  mind  back  of  the  eye,  is  trained  to  recognize  cer- 
tain standards  of    excellence  is  the  test  of  value. 

Such  personal  elements  as  (1)  attitude,  (2)  attention,  (3) 
industry,  are  usually  taken  into  account  in  grading  a  pupil 
for  the  month — -they  should  not  be  considered  in  evaluating 
a  given  piece  of  work  for  neatness,  speed  and  accuracy.    Atti- 


192        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

tude,  attention,  industry,  like  neatness,  are  subjective,  de- 
pending upon  the  ideals  the  individual  teacher  may  have  as  to 
these  matters. 

7.  Illustration  of  a  Method  of  Attack  in  Establishing 
Pupil  Standards  for  Accuracy  in  Execution  in  a  Given  Spe- 
cific Project.  A  mechanic  may  be  held  to  100%  efficiency 
in  accuracy  or  skill  in  execution  and  time  for  accomplishment. 
In  manual  and  industrial  arts,  some  allowances  should  be 
made  for  the  fact  that  the  student  is  a  beginner  and  not  a 
mechanic.  It  may  be  found  advisable,  for  example,  on  the 
first  piece  of  woodwork  to  demand  100%  accuracy  in  square- 
ness only,  centering  the  attention  upon  this  with  the  under- 
standing upon  the  part  of  the  pupil  that  dimensions  are  to 
be  made  as  large  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  100%  at- 
tainment in  squareness.  The  element  of  speed  may  be 
neglected  except  in  a  very  general  way — a  maximum  time 
allowance  may  be  made,  after  which  the  class  is  to  move  on, 
or  be  given  a  demonstration  upon  new  subject-matter. 

The  following  example*  will  serve  to  illustrate  a  non-tech- 
nical method  of  attack  in  setting  standards.  As  it  is  based 
upon  only  66  student  participants  the  results  are  not  to  be 
taken  as  absolute,  even  for  the  class  of  students  specified. 
At  least  1000  cases  should  be  examined  to  give  the  results 
that  are  reliable.  Sixty-six  college  freshmen,  never  having 
had  any  woodwork,  were  each  given  a  board  6"xl2",  sur- 
faced on  two  sides  to  %"  in  thickness.  After  a  careful  dem- 
onstration they  were  asked  to  plane  the  two  edges  straight, 
square  to  a  selected  and  marked  face-side,  and  parallel  one 
to  the  other.  They  were  told  no  board  would  be  accepted  by 
the  instructor  until  there  was  100%  efficiency  of  attainment 
in  these  respects — that  is,  until  the  instructor  could  detect 
no   light  between   try-square  and   edge   and   no  variation   in 

*Data  arranged  by  L.  R.  Fuller,  sometime  Assistant  in  Manual  Arts, 
University  of  Missouri. 


STANDARDS  AND   TESTS 193 

width  of  board  with  the  sliding  try-square  test.     They  were 
also  told  to  take  off  no  more  shavings  than  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  required  result,  that  the  student  with  the 
fewest  shavings  removed  would  rank  highest 
The  results  tabulated  were  as  follows: 
Amount  removed  from  width  in  16ths  of  an  inch: 


2/16 —  2  cases. 

12 

—  1  cases. 

3   —  8 

13 

—  0 

4   —16 

14 

—  6 

5   —11 

15 

—  1 

6   —  6 

16 

—  0 

7   —  0 

20 

—  1 

8   —  6 

28 

—  1 

9   —  3 

31 

—  1 

10   —  2 

46 

—  1 

11   —0 

Now,  according  to  the  Law  of  Probability,  of  Chapter  VII, 
the  distribution  of  these  amounts  according  to  the  number  of 
students  involved  will  be  as  follows: 

2%  used  2/16"  of  board  or  less 
23%      "      2/16  to      4/16"  of  board 
50%      "     4/16  to      7/16"    " 
23%      "     7/16  to  1  7/8"     " 
2%      "      over  1  7/8 
For   the    sake    of    convenience    in    combining    rankings    in 
several  factors,  we  may  arbitrarily  assign  certain  numerical 
scores  to  each  of  these  ranks  as  follows : 

Standards  for  scoring  width  of  first  exercise. 
2/16"  or  less  =Score  1. 
2/16"  to  4/16"=Score  2. 
4/16"  to  7/16"=Score  3. 
7/16"  to  1  7/8"=Score  4. 
over  1  7/8"=Score  5. 


194         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

In  a  similar  manner,  these  students  were  instructed  to  make 
the  two  ends  square  to  the  face-edge  and  face-side  taking  off 
no  more  stock  than  was  necessary  to  secure  100%  accuracy 
in  squareness.  A  careful  demonstration  was  given,  and  the 
instructor  accepted  no  piece  until  it  failed  to  show  any  light 
between  end  of  the  board  and  the  try-square  blade. 

The  results  were  as  follows. 

Amount  removed  from  length  in  16ths  of  an  inch: 


1/16 —  2  cases 

9 

—  5  cases 

2      —  2 

10 

—  5 

3      —2 

11 

—  5 

4—5 

12 

—  5 

5      —  2 

16 

—  1 

6      —18 

18 

—  2 

7      —  7 

24 

—  1 

8      —4 

Distributing  these  length  variations  according  to  the  Law 
of  Probability  the  result  is  as  follows: 

2%  used  1/16"  of  board  or  less 

23%      "  1/16  to  3/8"  of  board 

50%      "  3/8  to  5/8"  of  board 

23%      "  5/8  to  1  1/8"  of  board 

2%     "  over  1  1/8"  of  board 

Assigning  numerical  score  values  we  have 

Standards  for  Scoring  Length  in  first  exercise. 
1/16"  or  less  =Score  1. 
1/16"  to  3/8"=Score  2. 
3/8"  to  5/8"=Score  3. 
5/8"  to  1  l/8"=Score  4. 
Over  1  l/8"=Score  5. 

Tn  a  similar  manner  other  factors  such  as  time,  neatness, 
etc.,  may  be  scored. 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS  195 


These  scorings  for  each  student  may  next  be  combined  and 
the  result  will  give  each  his  ranking  among  his  fellows.  If 
an  average  is  struck  after  combin'^g,  grades  may  be  assigned 
as  follows: 

l=Excellent. 

2=Superior. 

3=Medium. 

4=Inferior. 

5=Failure. 
Once  having  determined  an  objective  set  of  standards  for 
a  sufficiently  large  number  of  individuals  to  exclude  serious 


Fig.  25.     Scoring  Device  for  Woodwork  Dimensions. 

effects  from  accidentals,  a  scoring  device  similar  to  that  of 
Fig.  25  might  be  constructed  for  certain  test  problems  to  be 
given  at  stated  intervals  on  predetermined  types  of  work. 
This  device  is  for  scoring  width  of  board  in  edge  planing  and 
length  in  end  planing  in  the"  problem  for  which  standards  were 
just  developed.  The  various  boards  of  any  class  are  merely 
laid  upon  the  table,  one  edge  or  end  against  the  stop  and  the 
proper  score  is  read  at  the  other  edge  or  end. 

Fig.  26  shows  a  type  of  limit  gage  for  commercial  testing 
of  commercial  metal  machine  work.  There  are  two  limits, 
a  maximum  and  a  minimum.  The  piece  of  work  to  be  tested 
must  pass  thru  one  but  not  the  other.  There  is  no  reason 
the  school  shop  should  not  possess  and  make  use  of  the  gages 


196        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


used   in   the  trades.      Industry   has   objective   standards    for 

nearly    everything — especially     in     manufacture.       Industrial 

arts  teaching  must  ever  keep  in 

mind    such    standards    since   the 

development  of  efficiency  is  the 

end  and  aim  of  all  industrial  arts 

teaching. 

Manual     arts     teachers     too 

often    have    few    standards    or 

tests    other    than    those    derived 

from  their  feelings  in  the  matter. 

With     large     classes     and     full 

teaching  schedule  they  find  little 

b    .    .         .     .       j       f      .         Fig.  26.    Limit  Gage  for  Test- 
time    or    interest    in    developing  ing   Machine    Products. 

more    scientific    standards    and 

tests.     The  very  least  any  young  teacher  can  do  is  to  make 

many  visits  to  other  shops  in  an  effort  to  educate  his  feelings 

as  they  have  to  do  with  standards.     The  second  thing  is  to 

set   about   developing   a    set   of    standards    and    tests   which 

may   be   applied    semi-occasionally,    just   as    the   blank   quiz 

test    is    applied    semi-occasionally.      With    enough    teachers 

working  together  upon   such   similar   tests,   some   sort  of   a 

standard  for  speed  and  accuracy  in  various  types  of  work 

ought  to  result  that  will  make  for  more  just  grading.     The 

teacher's  first  duty  is  to   teach,   of   course;  a  teacher  with 

proper  information  as  to  what  pupils  of  a  certain  grade  may 

reasonably  be  expected  to  accomplish  will  teach  better  than 

one  who  has  no  such  conception. 

8.  Summary.  Much  work  needs  be  done  before  it  can 
be  said  that  there  is  a  scientific  basis  for  teacher  standards. 
Not  a  few  cities  have  determined  upon  certain  factors  to  be 
considered  in  attempts  to  evaluate  teachers  of  their  system 
for    purposes    of    promotion.      Manual    and    industrial    arts 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS  197 


teachers  may  be  benefited  by  making  a  study  of  these  factors 

Only  in  a  very  general  way  have  standards  of  subject- 
matter  requirements  for  different  grades  in  different  types 
of  schools  been  set. 

In  matters  of  standards  and  tests  for  pupil  accomplishment 
within  any  given  type  of  work,  it  may  be  said  that  the  factors 
to  be  considered  are,  in  a  large  part,  those  enumerated  in 
Chapter  II.  In  expressional  manual  arts,  we  may  dismiss  the 
subject  with  the  statement  that  the  pupil  has  done  all  that  is  to 
be  expected  in  any  given  piece  of  work  when  the  idea  or  ideas 
to  be  expressed  are  clearly  evident  to  other  members  of  the 
class  and  when  the  pupil  has  made  use  of  such  technical  skill 
as  is  required  for  the  purpose. 

Technical  manual  arts  and  industrial  arts  will  consider 
form  and  execution  as  factors  making  for  standards  of  pupil 
accomplishment.  Form  has  to  do  with  ideas  and  with  the 
assimilation  of  instruction  in  conventional  methods  of  pro- 
cedure. Analyses  of  trade  practice  will  provide  standards 
for  proper  form.  Such  analyses  can  be  found  in  reputable 
texts  dealing  with  the  conventions  of  the  craft  under  considera- 
tion. There  remains  the  determination  of  certain  minimal 
essentials  of  subject-matter  requirements  for  each  grade  in 
each  type  of  school. 

The  oral  and  written  quiz  with  final  examination  provide 
a  means  of  testing  form.  Tests  for  technic,  which  is  form  in 
use,  will  have  to  be  made  by  the  teachers  observing  the  pu- 
pils at  work.  Shop  men  neglect  the  testing  of  form  and  tech- 
nic, as  a  rule,  because  they  fail  to  appreciate  the  need  for 
having  pupils  hold  in  memory  knowledge  of  correct  form; 
also,  because  they  hesitate  to  reduce  the  already  brief  shop 
time  by  taking  time  for  mental  tests,  even  where  these  have 
to  do  with  the  subject-matter  of  the  shop. 

The  factors  most  commonly  considered  in  testing  for  skill 


198         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

in  execution  are  speed,  accuracy,  neatness.  Standards  for 
time  exist  in  practically  all  kinds  of  trade  work.  The  means 
for  testing  time  is,  of  course,  the  clock  or  watch.  Trades 
claim  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than  100%  perfection. 
This  does  not  mean  absolute  perfection  of  standard,  for 
standards  in  trades  are  relative ;  it  means  only  that  nothing 
less  than  well-recognized  minimum  trade  standards  is  accept- 
able. 

A  mechanic  may  well  be  held  to  100%  efficiency,  on  the 
basis  of  trade  standards,  in  both  speed  and  accuracy  in  exe- 
cution. In  manual  and  industrial  arts  some  allowances  must 
be  made  for  the  fact  that  the  student  is  engaged  in  the  learn- 
ing process.  Instruction  and  speed  attainment  conflict.  In 
presenting  new  subject-matter  we  may  choose  to  emphasize 
accuracy  or  we  may  choose  to  emphasize  speed,  or  we  may 
balance  the  emphasis  with  a  consequent  falling  off  of  effi- 
ciency in  either.  Schools,  conducted  properly,  that  is,  with 
attention  to  learning  as  well  as  developing  speed,  cannot  hope 
to  compete  with  industry  wherein  the  workmen  have  ceased 
to  learn,  but  have  all  their  time  and  attention  for  speed  at- 
tainment. From  such  studies  of  student  speed  and  accuracy, 
neatness,  etc.,  wherein  large  numbers  are  considered,  ever 
looking  to  trade  standards  as  ideals,  it  will  be  possible  to 
establish  reasonable  standards  of  attainments  for  students  at 
various  stages  of  their  development  in  both  speed  and  accur- 
acy. Human  elements,  too,  such  as  attitude,  attention,  indus- 
try, should  be  taken  into  account  in  grading  pupils  for  reward 
but  not  for  grading  product. 


Reference  Reading: 

Sargent:     Fine  and  Industrial  Arts  for  Elementary  Schools, 

pp.  21-25,  44-46,  77,  79,  128. 
Collins :     Drawing   and    Constructive    Work   for   Elementary 

Schools,  pp.  75,  80,  85,  90,  94,  100,  102,  104,  106,  107. 
Leavitt:     Examples  of  Industrial  Education,  pp.  191-200. 


STANDARDS  AND  TESTS 199 

U.  S.  Army :     Trade  Specifications  and  Index. 
U.  S.  Army :    The  Rating  Scale,  Personnel  Work  in  the  United 
State  Army,  1919. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  State  as  concisely  as  possible  just  what  subject-matter  you 
think  might  well  be  considered  as  standard  for  primary 
grades,  intermediate,  upper  grammar,  and  high  school. 

2.  Making  use  of  the  Kansas  City  "plan  for  measuring  merit 
or   efficiency  of   teachers,"   score   a   number   of   manual   or 

industrial  arts  teachers.  If  possible,  visit  and  make  your- 
self acquainted  with  the  work  of  the  drawing  and  manual 
or  industrial  arts  teachers  of  the  public  schools. 

3.  As  yet,  no  one  has  worked  out  a  set  of  objective  scales 
or  tests  or  standards  for  manual  arts,  as  has  been  done 
for  handwriting  and  composition  in  academic  work.  Every 
opportunity  should  be  taken  to  find  out  how  teachers  of 
good  reputation  professionally  are  grading. 


CHAPTER  XV 

CONDITIONS    WHICH    MAKE    FOR    PROGRESS 

1.  Conflicting  Aims  in  Education.  A  careful  reading 
of  the  discussion  of  previous  chapters  of  the  book  should 
have  pointed  the  fact  that  education  is  confronted  with  many 
conflicting  aims  and  ends  and  that  what  may  be  gained  by 
over  emphasis  upon  one  line  is  counter-balanced  by  a  loss 
along  another  line.  When  we  stress  instinct  we  neglect  in- 
telligence, and  vice  versa.  Theory,  science,  the  general,  knowl- 
edge, technic,  form  are  opposed  to  practice,  the  art,  the 
specific,  doing,  skill,  execution.  Referring  to  Fig.  1,  the 
former  have  to  do  with  connections  between  thought  and 
thought,  connections  No.  3,  Path  No.  2.  The  latter  have  to 
do  with  either  Path  No.  1  or  Path  No.  3.  Either  of  these 
latter  connections  tends  to  interfere  with  connections  No.  3 
of  Path  No.  2.  The  general  vs.  the  specific  has  been  suffi- 
ciently discussed  in  Chapter  VIII,  Correlation  and  Associa- 
tion. Intellect  vs.  feeling  has  been  discussed  in  Chapter  I. 
Technic  vs.  skill  will  be  found  discussed  in  Chapter  II.  Other 
conflicting  aims  have  also  been  treated ;  space  will  be  taken 
in  this  chapter  merely  to  point  out  some  conditions  which 
must  obtain  in  manual  and  industrial  arts  if  progress  is  to 
be  made. 

2.  Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  an  Attempt  to  Provide 
a  Better  Balance  Between  the  Abstract  and  the  Concrete 
in  Education — Between  Theory  and  Practice.  Fig.  27 
shows  graphically  the  distribution  of  people  in  the  state  of 
Missouri  engaged  in  the  larger  pursuits.  From  this  it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  her  people  are 
engaged  in  the  manipulation  of  concrete  things  rather  than 
abstract  ideas.  To  neglect  in  our  schools  the  giving  of  oppor- 
tunity   for    technical    experience    and    expression    thru    the 

200 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS         201 

manipulation  of  concrete  materials  is  to  ignore  the  welfare 
of  that  vast  majority  of  our  people  who  will  live  by  the  manipu- 
lation of  materials.  "Improvement  in  one  special  power 
rarely,  if  ever,  means  equal  improvement  in  general."  Years 
of  training  in  generalizations  based  upon  haphazard  concrete 
experiences  will  not  help  much  when,  in  after  life,  the  boy 

Number  of  thousands  of  persons  occupied  over  /o  years  of  age 

SO     100      ISO    ZOO    ZiO   300    <3SO     400  4S0 


Male 
Female 


Agriculture 

Mechanical  Work       g*^ 

Trade  ^a/e 

Female    ■ 

Transportation  JgJJ^  ^^ 

Domestic  Service  g*^  ^^ 

Clerical  Work  »°%ale  ™ 

Professions  %&„  J- 

M"""S  Femok  ™ . 

Public  Service  %%*  ■ 

Fig.  27.    Distribution  of  Persons  Engaged  in  Gainful  Occupations  in  the 
State  of  Missouri,  Census  Report,  1910. 

or  girl  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the  necessity  for  quick 
decision  accompanied  by  prompt  execution  in  a  world  of 
concretes.  Indeed,  such  discipline  may  even  prove  a  hind- 
rance thru  having  developed  an  attitude  of  mind  which  re- 
quires much  time  to  consider  all  of  the  niceties  involved  in 
the  passing  of  judgment  upon  derived  abstractions,  abstrac- 
tions interesting  in  themselves  but  of  less  moment  at  the 
time  than  the  prompt  execution  of  the  task  in  hand. 

A  paragraph  from  an  article  in  the  Medical  Review  of  Re- 
views, September,  1915,  reads:  "Attentive  control — the 
power  of  fixing  the  attention  on  one  thing  and  then  doing  it 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  others — is  'the  one  aim  of  true  educa- 


202         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   ARTS 


tion/  yet  its  loss  is  increasing  at  an  alarming  rate.  We  rind 
more  and  more  people  who  are  victims  of  indecision,  who 
cannot  make  up  their  minds."  If  school  life  is  to  be  devoted 
exclusively  to  generalities,  to  abstractions,  and  "mental 
capacity  depends  upon  the  concrete  data  with  which  it  works," 
need  we  be  surprised  to  find  indecision  when  the  product  of 
the  school  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the  realities,  with  the 
necessity  for  dealing  with  concretes?  "To  learn  by  doing  is 
to  learn  with  the  best  aids  psychology  and  science  have  been 
able  to  discover."  The  remedy  for  a  race  afflicted  with  inde- 
cision is  a  liberal  introduction  of  subject-matter  which  will 
give  to  the  children  plenty  of  specific  experiences  with  such 
concretes  as  may  be  found  in  the  practical  subjects.  If  such 
school  experience  should  do  no  more  than  continue  the  re- 
spect, interest,  and  pleasure  which  little  children  have  in  the 
manipulation  of  concrete  materials,  it  would  have  better  served 
the  95  per  cent  who  must  make  their  living  by  such  manipula- 
tions than  to  have  made  them  feel  that  theirs  was  a  life  of 
enforced  drudgery. 

All  industrial  pursuits  depend  for  success  upon  a  recogni- 
tion and  understanding  of  certain  conventional  methods  of 
procedure  coupled  with  an  unconscious  tendency  to  act,  once 
the  recognition  of  what  comes  next  enters  the  field  of  con- 
sciousness, or  is  suggested  thru  reflex  muscular  control  or 
feeling.  The  data  of  the  practical  subjects,  habits  of  mind 
and  body,  the  attitudes,  are  to  be  got  only  thru  experiences 
with  the  data  and  methods  of  procedure  common  to  such 
subjects.  Accuracy  of  judgment  developed  in  a  study  of 
formal  logic  is  of  little  aid  when  judgment  of  a  practical  na- 
ture based  upon  experience  with  specific  practical  data  is  de- 
manded. Every  child  should  have  some  experience  along  one 
or  more  practical  or  technical  lines  of  endeavor.  The  greater 
the  number  of  lines  available  for  choice  the  better,  provided 
they  are  well  organized  and  well  taught. 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS         203 

The  author  would  be  false  to  the  subject  did  he  not  again 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  while  most  academic  subject- 
matter  deals  too  exclusively  in  generalities  to  supply  a  com- 
plete educational  experience,  manual  training,  as  now  taught 
by  many  with  little  or  no  qualifications  for  teaching  the  sub- 
ject, often  deals  too  exclusively  with  the  details  of  industrial 
experience.  If  manual  training  and  industrial  arts  are  to 
take  the  large  place  in  the  educational  field  which  awaits  them, 
they  must  so  organize  and  teach  their  subject-matter  that 
details  of  specific  experiences  shall  be  seen  by  the  pupil  in 
their  larger  relationships.  Manual  training  and  industrial 
arts  teachers  must  remember  that  their  subject  is  to  be  justi- 
fied not  alone  by  similarity  of  subject-matter  and  similarity 
of  method  of  procedure  but  also  by  the  extent  to  which  it 
enables  students  to  formulate  these  specific  experiences  in 
terms  of  general  principles  and  ideals. 

3.  Need  for  a  Scientific  Treatment  of  Subject-matter. 
The  man  of  so-called  practical  training  too  often  is  inclined 
to  ridicule  the  efforts  of  the  man  engaged  in  making  a  study 
of  the  science  underlying  such  practical  activities.  A  few 
examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  need  for  scientific  treat- 
ment of  subject-matter.  The  following  on  "Tone  Placement" 
is  from  a  metropolitan  daily :  "Recently  I  heard  a  distin- 
guished singer.  At  first  the  voice  seemed  to  have  quite  an 
unusual  color.  It  seemed  more  like  an  instrument  than  a 
human  voice.  Little  by  little  I  became  accustomed  to  the 
quality,  and  finally  began  to  like  it.  I  wish  to  speak  of  the 
placement  of  this  voice.  The  best  tones  were  of  a  medium 
quality  and  volume  and  quite  satisfactory.  But  they  were 
placed  by  Nature.  I  could  tell  that,  because,  if  they  had  been 
acquired  by  the  study  of  tone  placing  the  singer  would  have 
employed  her  knowledge  of  tone  placing  on  her  high  tones 
and  would  have  been  equally  successful  in  producing  a  good 
high  tone — at  least  a  good  F  or  G,  which  were,  I  believe,  the 


204         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


tones  she  sang  in  a  somewhat  hit-or-miss  manner.  This  un- 
certainty— hit  or  miss — was  apparent  in  all  her  songs.  Now, 
if  this  singer  had  known  exactly  how  she  was  taking  her 
good  middle  tones,  she  would  sing  the  high  ones  successfully. 
If  she  would  focus  her  breath  above  the  upper  front  teeth 
and  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  she  would  produce  a  good  tone 
every  time.  I  am  sure  of  this,  because  she  gets  a  good  tone 
sometimes.  She  would  then  guide  her  breath  up  and  let  it 
float  out  of  an  open  throat — open  above  the  larynx.  If  a 
tone  sounds  veiled,  that  is  a  sure  sign  it  is  not  properly  pro- 
duced. Placing  a  tone  means  that  the  vocalized  breath  must 
be  carried  up  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  In  this  way 
resonance  will  be  secured  and  clarity,  the  veiled  sound  disap- 
pearing." 

Again,  a  carpenter  of  ten  years  experience  presented  him- 
self for  an  examination  in  carpentry.  He  was  given  a  piece 
of  2"x4"  and  told  to  frame  the  side-cut  for  an  octagon  jack. 
Altho  he  could  frame  the  side-cut  for  a  jack  on  a  square 
corner  he  was  non-plussed  when  asked  to  frame  the  same 
cut  on  an  octagon  jack.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  car- 
penter who  can  frame  an  octagon  jack  side-cut,  except  by 
cut-and-try  method  is  rare.  Why?  Not  because  the  cut  is 
a  difficult  one  to  make — it  is  no  more  difficult  than  the  same 
cut  for  a  square  corner  jack — but  simply  because  he  has  not 
mastered  the  science  of  roof  framing.  He  has  been  taught  to 
think  in  terms  of  a  certain  specific  type  of  roof,  and  the  specific 
numbers  to  be  used  in  framing  that  type  rather  than  to  think 
in  terms  of  principles. 

These  specific  experiences  are  the  necessary  basis  for  the 
science  or  theory  of  an  art  but  they  do  not  in  themselves  con- 
stitute science.  Only  as  these  specific  experiences  are  gen- 
eralized do  they  take  the  form  of  science.  Science  emphasizes 
selected  experiences,  Cf.  Chapter  X. 

Much   so-called   new   manual   training  and   industrial  arts, 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS  .        205 

with  its  stressing  of  subject-matter  only,  is  likely  to  cause  a 
distinct  educational  loss  thru  its  emphasis  upon  mere  associa- 
tion rather  than  upon  additional  selection.  The  so-called 
practical  manual  arts  and  industrial  arts  which  take  the  form 
of  chores  about  the  home,  repair  work  about  the  school, 
building  of  school  equipment  without  due  regard  to  proper 
principles  underlying  the  activities,  mere  emphasis  upon  what 
to  do  with  little  upon  why  it  is  done  that  way,  is  of  limited 
educational  value. 

4.  Limitations  Which  Arise  from  Undue  Emphasis  up- 
on Theory  or  Science.  If  the  practically  trained  man  has 
his  weaknesses,  the  scientifically  trained  man,  with  no  basis 
for  his  science  or  theory  in  practical  experience,  is  also  sub- 
ject to  serious  handicap.  This  is  the  greatest  cause  for  weak- 
ness in  our  academic  system  of  education  as  it  is  constituted 
today.  Educators,  recognizing  as  they  do  the  great  value  of 
theory,  science,  take  little  children  and  from  first  grade  thru 
university,  strive  to  stuff  them  with  principles,  rules,  theory, 
science,  abstraction.  Eight  years  of  grammar  school,  four 
years  of  high  school,  four  years  of  college,  and  possibly  three 
more  years  of  graduate  work — all  devoted  to  an  attempt  to 
master  rules,  principles,  science,  is  a  rather  wasteful  process. 
Lacking  a  suitable  basis  in  practical  experience,  the  thinking 
becomes  one  of  memory,  of  association  rather  than  reason 
or  selection,  to  a  large  extent.  An  examination  upon  subject- 
matter  covered  will  prove  that  only  a  very  small  part  of  that 
studied  is  remembered  to  the  end  of  the  preparatory  period. 
Even  if  all  the  rules  and  principles  were  remembered  and 
understood  there  would  still  remain  the  necessity  for  educa- 
tion thru  feeling  which  we  have  tried  to  point  out  is  no  small 
part  of  a  complete  education.  A  boy  may  be  taught  all  the 
science  of  riding  a  bicycle  or  of  flying  the  aeroplane;  only 
as  he  has  opportunity  for  forming  the  necessary  muscular 
adjustments  thru  riding  the  bicycle  or  flying  the  aeroplane 


206        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

can  we  say  that  his  education  in  these  respects  is  complete. 

Science,  technic,  form,  cannot  in  any  way  serve  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  trial  and  error  in  execution ;  what  it  can  do  is  to 
reduce  the  number  of  trials  thru  reducing  the  chances  for 
error  to  the  lowest  possible  number  and  providing  the  con- 
necting link  so  that  one  set  of  specific  experiences  may  func- 
tion in  another  set,  in  so  far  as  reduction  of  chances  for  error 
is  concerned.  The  carpenter  who  knows  how  to  frame  a 
side-cut  for  a  jack  of  a  square  corner  roof,  will  not  be  non- 
plussed when  asked  to  frame  a  side-cut  for  an  octagon  jack 
if  he  knows  the  science  of  roof  framing.  A  pupil  who  has 
merely  studied  roof  framing  principles,  without  applications 
of  any  kind  will  find  himself  non-plussed  when  he  tries  to 
frame  an  octagon  jack,  in  a  way  the  carpenter  is  not.  All 
the  science  in  the  world  about  roof  framing  will  not  make  it 
possible  for  the  student  to  frame  an  octagon  jack  without 
the  same  trials  and  errors  for  muscular  adjustment  that  the 
carpenter  experienced  in  his  earlier  days. 

Theory  or  science,  then,  is  of  value  only  when  applied. 
Too  long  continued  attention  to  theory  without  application 
makes  for  lack  of  meaning  in  theory.  Both  theory  and  appli- 
cation alternating  at  not  too  infrequent  periods  are  necessary 
to  a  vital  educational  experience. 

5.  The  Place  of  Texts.  Not  a  few  manual  and  indus- 
trial arts  teachers,  taking  their  cue  from  certain  so-called 
practical  men  of  the  trades,  ridicule  the  use  of  texts  in  shop 
classes.  Manual  training  and  industrial  arts,  they  say,  are 
in  the  schools  as  a  protest  against  a  bookish  education.  If 
academic  education  has  over-emphasized  a  study  of  rules, 
principles,  theory,  manual  and  industrial  arts  will  not  better 
the  situation  by  going  to  the  opposite  extreme  and  emphasiz- 
ing feeling  or  direct  interpretation  to  the  exclusion  of  attention 
to  the  science  underlying  the  subject-matter  with  which  they 
are  dealing. 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS         207 

Texts  in  manual  arts  are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  Those  which 
deal  with  the  principles  of  working  the  materials  of  any- 
given  craft  not  as  principles  but  as  specific  directions  in  con- 
nection with  some  specific  project  or  projects.  The  principles 
of  squaring-up  stock,  for  example,  are  not  treated  as  such  but 
are  treated  as  steps  in  making  a  specific  project,  as  a  taboret. 
(2)  Those  which  deal  with  principles  only,  projects  and  the 
project  operation  sheets  being  given  on  a  separate  form.  It 
should  be  recognized  that  a  treatment  of  subject-matter  which 
fails  to  dissociate  principles  from  specific  projects  is  of  less 
value  in  certain  ways  than  one  which  causes  the  pupil  to  think 
in  terms  of  principles  so  dissociated.  A  pupil  who  follows 
specific  project  directions  is  doing  associative  thinking  not 
selective.  While  he  will  or  may  succeed  on  a  given  project 
better  than  one  whose  directions  are  to  be  got  from  general 
principles,  he  will  most  likely  be  non-plussed  when  a  different 
project  with  similar  principles  involved  is  presented  him. 

"Language,  written  and  spoken,  serves  to  connect  theory 
and  practice."  A  properly  written  text  is  a  good  teacher's 
tool  for  the  economical  connecting  of  theory  and  practice. 
Only  as  the  memory  processes  are  kept  open  is  it  possible  to 
make  theory  function  in  practice.  Only  as  the  memory  pro- 
cesses are  kept  open  is  it  possible  to  effectively  adjust  one's 
self  to  new  situations  thru  knowledge.  Textbooks  dealing 
with  principles  afford  a  tool  whereby  the  individual  may  keep 
memory  processes  open  thru  study  and  review. 

6.  Race  Progress  Demands  that  a  Balance  be  Main- 
tained Between  Conflicting  Aims.  The  complete  educa- 
tional experience  involves  experience  with  specific  concretes; 
put  of  these  experiences  thru  contradictions  should  come  ab- 
straction and  generalizations  in  the  form  of  rules,  principles, 
theory,  and  science.  The  third  step  consists  in  the  applica- 
tion of  these  rules,  this  science  or  theory  to  new  situations. 


208        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Race  progress  demands  that  a  balance  be  maintained  between 
conflicting  aims,  such  as  theory  and  practice,  etc. 

As  in  the  discussions  of  previous  chapters,  so  in  this,  what 
has  been  said  must  be  taken  as  the  result  of  an  approach  from 
the  psychological  or  individualistic  point  of  view.  There  is 
still  to  be  considered  the  social  and  economic  and  ethical 
approaches. 

Social  and  economic  considerations  necessitate  the 
further  statement  that  maintenance  of  balance  in  conflict  of 
aims  making  for  race  progress  does  not  depend  upon  the 
maintenance  of  balance  of  these  factors  in  individuals.  In 
fact,  race  progress  appears  to  be  most  favored  when  indi- 
viduals and  classes  do  not  maintain  balance  but  specialize. 
Some  men  may  become  the  thinkers,  some  doers  in  the  world's 
work.  In  the  long  run,  however,  there  must  be  a  balancing 
of  individual  or  class  specialist  of  one  type  against  individual 
or  class  specialist  of  opposite  type — not  in  numbers  but  in 
the  meeting  of  social  need.  Social  and  economic  considera- 
tions, then,  afford  the  basis  for  justification  for  the  education 
of  types  not  recognized  as  wholly  or  highly  desirable  from 
the  standpoint  of  psychology  or  of  the  individual.  It  is  on 
this  latter  basis  that  we  allow  and  encourage  the  training  for 
the  three  types  of  reactive  needs — the  common  laboring,  the 
skilled,  the  director. 

In  the  recognition  of  the  place  of  these  three  types  of 
reactive  needs  in  education  and  in  the  granting  of  the  just- 
ness of  differentiation  in  awards  on  the  basis  of  educational 
investment,  it  should  not  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  pres- 
ent situation  as  to  the  relative  amounts  of  awards  is  approved. 
Undoubtedly  members  of  the  laboring  class,  in  most  com- 
munities, are  not  receiving  a  just  share  comparatively.  A 
section  hand  who  labors  ten  hours  a  day,  on  work  that  must 
needs  be  done,  at  a  rate  of  one  dollar  ?nd  seventy-five  cents 
a  day,  certainly  is  not  getting  a  fair  share  from  railroad  re- 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS  209 

turns  in  which  the  president  is  paid  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  per  year.  The  section  hand  usually  has  the  larger 
family,  and  human  needs  as  to  food  and  clothing,  medicines, 
etc.,  have  a  minimum  limit  below  which  they  cannot  go  with- 
out causing  harm  to  the  individual,  his  family  and  indirectly 
to  the  social  order  itself. 

The  remedy  for  such  unjust  distribution,  in  the  absence  of 
sufficiently  compelling  ethical  motives,  is  being  found  in  col- 
lective bargaining  of  labor.  Here  again  is  seen  a  need  for 
balance.  Collective  bargaining  finds  its  strength  in  numbers. 
So  long  as  its  demands  are  not  unjust — are  such  as  to  allow 
difference  in  award  sufficient  to  encourage  greater  educational 
investment  upon  the  part  of  individuals — all  will  be  well.  Once 
let  the  power  in  numbers  place  all  awards  on  the  same  basis 
and  the  race  must  deteriorate  thru  lack  of  individual  initiative. 
There  are  certain  well-recognized  types  of  development.  In 
every  step  in  evolution,  results  have  been  brought  about  or 
have  become  possible  thru  variations  suitably  rewarded.  De- 
stroy suitable  rewards  and  man  ceases  to  make  the  effort 
necessary  to  exercise  initiative;  he  becomes  an  associative 
thinker  instead  of  a  selective.  We  say  of  an  individual  often 
times :  he  is  vegetating.  The  inference  is  clear :  progress  is 
possible  only  thru  effort;  continued  effort  comes  only  thru 
suitable  reward. 

7.  Summary.  Theory,  science,  the  general,  knowledge, 
technic,  form  are  opposed  to  practice,  the  art,  the  specific, 
activity,  skill,  execution.  The  manual  and  industrial  arts  are 
the  result  of  an  attempt  to  provide  a  better  balance  between 
the  abstract  and  the  concrete,  between  theory  and  practice. 
An  examination  of  the  occupational  data,  such  as  may  be 
found  in  the  United  States  census  reports,  will  make  evident 
that  many  more  people  live  thru  the  manipulation  of  concrete 
materials  than  thru  the  manipulation  of  ideas  or  abstrac- 
tions.     Education    should    look    to    the    training    of    indi- 


210        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

viduals  along  lines  of  materials  manipulation  as  well  as  ab- 
stractions—the practical  as  well  as  the  theoretical.  Habits 
of  mind  and  body,  the  attitudes,  such  as  have  to  do  with  the 
manipulation  of  concrete  materials,  are  to  be  acquired  only 
thru  experiences  with  data  and  methods  of  procedure  common 
to  such  subjects.  Theory  cannot  supplant  practice;  neither 
can  practice,  on  the  other  hand,  supplant  theory. 

Not  infrequently,  the  man  of  so-called  practical  experience 
is  inclined  to  ridicule  the  efforts  of  the  man  engaged  in  mak- 
ing a  study  of  the  science  underlying  such  practical  activities. 
Specific  practical  experiences  are  the  necessary  basis  for  the 
science,  or  theory,  or  art,  but  they  do  not  of  themselves  con- 
stitute such  science.  Only  as  these  specific  experiences  are 
generalized  do  they  take  the  form  of  science.  Much  so-called 
new  manual  training  and  certain  kinds  of  industrial  arts, 
with  their  stressing  of  practical  phases  only,  are  likely  to 
cause  a  distinct  educational  loss  thru  emphasis  upon  mere 
association  to  the  exclusion  of  selection. 

If  the  practically  trained  man  has  his  weaknesses,  the 
scientifically  trained  man,  with  no  basis  for  his  science  or 
theory  in  practical  experience,  is  also  subject  to  serious  handi- 
cap. Eight  years  of  grammar  school,  four  years  of  high 
school,  four  years  of  college,  ,and  possibly  three  years  of 
graduate — all  devoted  to  an  attempt  to  master  rules,  princi- 
ples, science,  is  a  rather  wasteful  process.  Science,  technic, 
form  cannot  in  any  way  serve  as  a  substitute  for  trial  and 
error  in  execution — for  feeling.  Theory  or  science  is  of  value 
when  applied.  Too  long  continued  attention  to  theory  without 
application  makes  for  lack  of  meaning  in  theory.  Both  the- 
ory and  application  alternating  at  not  too  infrequent  periods 
are  necessary  to  a  vital  educational  experience. 

Not  a  few  manual  and  industrial  arts  teachers,  taking  their 
cue  from  certain  so-called  practical  men  of  the  trades,  ridi- 
cule the  use  of  texts  in  shop  classes.     If  academic  education 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  PROGRESS          211 

has  over-emphasized  a  study  of  rules,  principles,  theory,  man- 
ual and  industrial  arts  will  not  better  the  situation  by  going 
to  the  opposite  extreme  in  emphasizing  feeling  or  direct  in- 
terpretation to  the  exclusion  of  attention  to  the  science  under- 
lying the  subject-matter  with  which  they  are  dealing.  Texts 
are  of  two  kinds,  differentiated  according  as  they  do  or  do 
not  deal  with  principles  dissociated  from  application  to  some 
particular  set  of  specific  projects.  The  former  is  somewhat 
more  difficult  for  student  and  teacher  to  use,  but  is  superior  in 
that  the  student  must  learn  to  think  in  terms  of  selective 
rather  than  associative  connections.  A  properly  written  text 
is  a  good  teacher's  tool  for  effectively  connecting  theory  and 
practice. 

Race  progress  demands  that  a  balance  be  maintained  be- 
tween conflicting  aims,  such  as  theory  and  practice.  Social 
and  economic  considerations  necessitate  the  statement  that  bal- 
ance in  conflict  of  aims  making  for  race  progress  does  not  de- 
pend upon  maintenance  of  balance  of  these  factors  in  the  indi- 
vidual. Some  men  may  become  thinkers,  some  doers  in  the 
world's  work.  In  the  long  run  special  groups  of  a  given  type 
must  be  balanced  by  equally  strong  groups  of  opposite  type.  It 
is  on  this  basis  of  social  and  economic  rather  than  psychological 
need  that  training  in  low  reactive  types  as  well  as  higher 
types  is  justified.  Such  recognition  of  a  place  in  education 
for  low  reactive  types  as  well  as  higher  should  not  be  taken 
as  signifying  unjustness  of  present  differentiations  of  awards 
on  the  basis  of  educational  investment.  Neither  should  the 
granting  of  the  justness  of  differentiation  in  awards  be  taken 
as  implying  the  justness  of  relative  amounts  of  awards  as  at 
present .  distributed.  Undoubtedly,  members  of  the  laboring 
class,  in  most  communities,  are.  not  receiving  a  just  share  of 
awards  for  effort.  The  remedy  for  such  unjust  distribution, 
in  the  absence  of  sufficiently  compelling  ethical  motives,  is 
being  found  in  the  principle  of  collective  bargaining.     Here 


212        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

again  we  need  to  maintain  a  balance.  Appeals  to  power  in 
numbers  carried  to  the  extreme  of  destruction  of  variations  in 
awards  will  tend  to  eliminate  originality  and  initiative. 

Reference  Reading: 

James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  Chapter  XIII,  p.  150. 
Judd :     Genetic  Psychology,  pp.  58-68,  136-147. 
Davidson:     A  History  of  Education,  pp.   1-17. 
Dewey:     How  We  Think,  Chapters  X,  XI. 
Griffith:     Correlated  Courses,  Chapter  I. 

Class  Discussion: 

1.  Under  what  condition  is  progress  most  possible,  emphasis 
upon  theory  or  upon  practice,  upon  the  general  or  the 
specific,   upon   knowledge  or   upon   action? 

2.  State  the  limitations  which  arise  when  either  extreme  is  em- 
phasized to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  for  an  undue  length 
of  time. 

3.  Recent  progress  in  Germany  industrially  has  been  due  to 
a  wise  balancing  of  science  (knowledge)  and  industry 
(action).     Give  some  specific  examples. 

4.  How  do  we  get  our  theory?  What  are  some  of  the  limita- 
tions of  an  education  made  up  wholly  of  a  manipulation  of 
formulas,  principles,  and  laws,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  got 
wholly  from  textbooks? 

5.  Of  what  value  is  shopwork  to  engineering  students  who 
do  not  expect  to  have  to  do  any  great  amount  of  shopwork? 

6.  Would  you  say  that  a  system  of  handwork  can  be  justified 
wholly  upon  the  ground  of  skill  of  hand — ability  to  per- 
form readily  certain  highly  specific  operations?  In  gen- 
eral  education  or  trade   training? 

7.  Rule  of  thumb  methods  need  what  else  to  make  them  worth 
while  for  general  educational  purposes? 

8.  Can  you  see  any  place  for  texts  in  shop  classes?  State 
such  advantages  as  you  think  may  accrue  from  assigned 
readings  upon  related  theory  accompanied  by  recitations 
the  following  lessons. 

9.  State  such  limitations  as  you  see  in  the  use  of  texts  in 
shop  classes. 

10.  Judd  says  the  teacher  must  "keep  the  memory  processes 
open."     What  does  he  mean? 

11.  A  man  has  worked  fifteen  years  at  his  trade.  Will  he  of 
necessity  make  a  good  teacher  of  his  trade?  Why  or 
why  not? 

12.  A  man  without  other  experience  graduates  from  a  corre- 
spondence course  in  machine  work,  will  he  make  a  good 
teacher  of  machine  work?     Why  or  why  not? 

13.  State  your  conclusion  as  to  theory  vs.  practice,  knowing 
vs.  doing. 


APPENDIX  I 
Special  Method  Procedure 

1.  Special  Method  Aims.  The  work  of  the  preceding 
chapters  might  well  be  classed  under  the  heading  of  general 
method.  An  attempt  was  made  to  connect  general  principles 
of  educational  psychology  with  the  special  problems  of  teach- 
ing the  manual  and  industrial  arts.  Before  the  student  is 
thrust  into  actual  teaching  conditions,  such  as  obtain  in  prac- 

PROGRAM  CARD 

for 

OBSERVATION  OF   MANUAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

TEACHING 

(Fill  out  in  triplicate)  Student's  name 


Subject 


School 


Grade 


Teacher 


Day — Hour — Date 
M      T      W      T        F 


(Reverse  side  of  card.) 
Instructions. — (1)    Each   student   will  elect   a   subject  for   observation 
teaching  method  according  to  his  interests  or  his  sub- 
ject of  specialization. 

(2)  He  will  examine  the  day-hour  program  of  the 
manual  arts  work  of  Elementary  or  of  University  High 
School,  or  of  other  schools  available  for  observational 
work,  and  make  out  a  trial  program. 

(3)  When  this  trial  program  has  been  approved  by  the 
instructor  of  Teaching  Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  and 
the  supervisor  of  practice  teaching  or  the  supervisor 
of  other  schools  to  be  visited,  a  final  program  in  tripli- 
cate is  to  be  made  out — one  for  the  instructor,  one  for 
the  supervisor,  and  one  for  student. 

Fig.  28.    Program  Card. 

tice  teaching,  it  seems  advisable  to  afford  opportunity  for  the 

making  of  more  specific  connections.     Special  method  lessons 

herewith  seek  to  suggest  a  method  of  attack.     Each  lesson 


213 


214        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


involves  two  kinds  of  experience — one,  individual  planning  of 
the  teaching  elements  of  given  type  lessons  together  with 
presentation  and  explanation  of  the  same  by  some  member 
of  the  class  followed  by  class  discussion  of  teaching  methods 
used;  two,  observational  work  of  expert  teaching  in  manual 
arts  followed  by  a  carefully  prepared  report.  The  aim  in 
this  work  is  not  so  much  one  of  study  of  organization  of 
subject-matter  and  administration  as  of  attention  to  the  art 
or  practice  of  teaching  as  tested  by  the  principles  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapters. 

2.  Directions  for  Observation.  (1)  Secure  from  the 
instructor  of  Teaching  Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  four  blank 
forms,  Program  Cards,  Fig.  28. 

(2)  Using  one  of  these  cards  as  a  trial  card  make  out  a 
trial  program  or  schedule  of  proposed  observational  work 
to  cover  at  least  fourteen  observational  periods.  Teaching 
schedules  for  Elementary  and  High  School  will  be  found 
posted  in  places  designated  by  the  instructor  of  Teaching 
Manual  and  Industrial  Arts. 

Make  a  selection  of  but  one  subject,  as  expressional  hand- 
work, technical  handwork,  mechanical  drawing,  etc.,  and 
confine  observations  to  a  detailed  study  of  the  teaching  of  some 
one  person.  Observation  of  the  work  of  other  instructors  is 
advised,  as  arrangements  can  be  made,  but  mainly  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  in  a  proper  evaluation  of  the  work  of 
the  teacher  whose  work  has  been  elected  for  study. 

(3)  Submit  the  trial  program  for  approval  to  the  in- 
structor in  Teaching  Manual  and  Industrial  Arts  and  the 
supervisor  of  Practice  Teaching. 

(4)  Upon  approval,  make  out  program  in  triplicate  and 
provide  one  for  instructor,  one  for  supervisor,  and  one  for 
self. 

(5)  Factors  to  be  considered  in  making  observations  are 


SPECIAL  METHOD  PROCEDURE 215 

fully  discussed  in  the  chapters  preceding.  The  student,  while 
he  may  and  should  make  note  of  any  number  or  of  all  of 
these  factors  in  any  one  lesson  observed,  will  do  well  to  pay 
special  attention  to  some  one  factor  at  each  lesson  observed. 
For  example,  the  first  observation  period  may  be  set  aside 
for  especial  attention  to  the  teacher's  outline  of  manual  arts 
work,  and  the  aim  of  the  work  as  a  whole.  The  second  period 
may  be  devoted  to  those  factors  discussed  in  Chapter  II,  the 
next  to  those  of  Chapter  III,  etc.,  etc. 

Each  lesson  should  be  carefully  written  up  and  these  notes 
used  in  the  writing  of  a  final  report.  The  final  report  should 
show  that  the  student  has  learned  to  think  of  his  special 
problem  in  terms  of  educational  principles — in  terms  of  analy- 
sis and  reason  as  well  as  in  terms  of  mere  practical  expe- 
diency. Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  hasty  generalizations. 
For  example,  a  teacher  may  have  planned  to  devote  several 
periods  to  emphasis  upon  skill  as  opposed  to  initiative.  Before 
such  a  teacher  is  condemned,  it  will  be  well  to  inquire  of  him 
as  to  his  plans,  in  his  general  scheme  of  manual  or  industrial 
arts  instruction,  for  the  development  of  initiative. 

3.  Type  Lessons.  The  aim  in  the  type  lessons  experience 
is  to  accustom  the  pupil-teacher  to  the  sensation  of  stand- 
ing before  a  class  and  presenting  a  lesson  which  he  and  his 
fellows  have  carefully  prepared  in  outline  form  beforehand, 
and  for  which  he  on  his  appointed  day  has  also  prepared  his 
materials  and  tools.  Where  classes  are  not  too  large  and 
students  have  not  developed  too  great  self-consciousness  with 
loss  of  imagination,  it  is  possible  to  reproduce  classroom  con- 
ditions, with  the  exception  of  those  of  discipline,  to  advantage. 
Where  these  conditions  do  not  obtain,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  one  demonstrating  take  time  to  explain  the  conditions 
which  obtain  in  the  problem  being  presented,  and  the  means 
used  to  meet  the  situation.    While  this  latter  experience  may 


216         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

be  less  embarrassing  to  both  demonstrating  teacher  and  fel- 
lows, it  falls  short  of  emphasizing  as  vitally  as  it  might  the 
points  to  be  brought  out.  It  is  one  thing,  for  example,  to 
explain  how  an  illustrative  lesson  in  the  story  of  the  Three 
Bears  is  to  be  given,  and  another  thing  to  actually  teach  the 
class,  even  tho  the  class  be  one's  fellows. 

In  elementary  handwork  the  class  may  well  add  to  demon- 
stration the  actual  carrying  out  of  instruction  in  work.  In 
technical  shopwork  such  type  lessons  will  probably  have  to 
end  with  the  demonstration. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  I 

Special    method — Type    lesson.      Expressional    or    illustrative 
handwork.      Paper   cutting   and   poster   making.      Stories, 
Grade  I. 
TI.     Required  Reading: 

Dobbs:     Primary  Handwork,  Chapters  I-IV. 
Zeitz :     Outlines.     Appendix  II  herewith. 
Dobbs:     Illustrative  Handwork,  pp.  38-52. 

III.  Suggested  Reading: 

Other   books   on   Elementary   handwork.     Cf.    library   finding 
lists. 

IV.  Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  given  in  Chapter  V,  Dobbs: 
Illustrative  Handwork,  develop  in  detail  an  expressional 
lesson  in  paper  cutting  and  poster  making  illustrative  of 
some  incident  connected  with  the  story  of  the  Gingerbread 
Man. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  preparations  beforehand  in  the  way  of 
materials  and  tools  in   consultation   with  the   instructor. 

3.  Begin  observational  work. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  II 

Type  lesson — Expressional  or  illustrative  handwork. 
Sand  table  chart.     Grade  II. 
Stevenson :  Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  The  Swing. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Zeitz:     Outlines,  Appendix  II. 
Dobbs:    Primary  Handwork,  Chapter  VII. 
Stevenson:     Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  The  Swing. 
Dobbs:     Illustrative  Handwork,  pp.  57-74. 


SPECIAL  METHOD  PROCEDURE 217 

III.    Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  V,  Dobbs:  Illustrative 
Handwork,  develop  in  detail  an  illustrative  lesson  on  the 
subject,  The  Swing,  from  Stevenson's  Child's  Garden  of 
Verses,  as  you  would  have  it  worked  out  upon  the  sand 
table  in  Grade  II. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in 
the  way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the 
instructor. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  III 

Type  lesson — Technical  handwork.     Paper  and  cardboard  con- 
struction, Grade  I.    Booklets  (loose  leaf),  braid, 
cord. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Zeitz  :     Outlines,  Appendix  II. 

Buxton  and   Curran :    Paper  and  Cardboard  Construction,  p. 
138. 

III.  Suggested  Reading: 

Other  books  on  elementary  handwork.  Cf.  finding  lists  in 
the  library. 

IV.  Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII,  herewith,  develop 
in  detail  a  technical  handwork  lesson  on  Booklet  Making 
for  Grade  I. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparation  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
instructor. 

3.  Continue  observational   work. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  IV 

Type  lesson — Technical  handwork.    Raffia,  Grade  II,  Rugs  for 
doll  house. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Zeitz:    Outlines,  Appendix  II. 

Dobbs:     Primary  Handwork,  pp.  40-45. 

III.  Suggested  Reading: 

Other  books  on  elementary  handwork.  Cf.  finding  lists  in 
the  library. 

IV.  Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII,  develop  in  de- 
tail a  technical  handwork  lesson  on  Rug  Weaving  for  doll 
house  for  Grade  II. 


218        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in 
the  way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the 
instructor. 

3.  Continue  the  observational  work. 


I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  V 

Type  lesson — Technical    manual    arts.      Mechanical    drawing. 
Grade  VII. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Griffith :     Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 

Drawing,  pp.  5,  6,  7  and  plate  50. 
Griffith :      Correlated   Courses  in   Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  p.  91,  Lesson  1,  Grade  VII. 

III.  Suggested  Reading: 

Other  books  on  mechanical  drawing.     Cf.  rinding  lists  in  the 
library. 

IV.  Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII  herewith,  develop 
in  detail  a  technical   drawing  lesson  for  Grade  VII. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue    observational   work. 


I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  VI 

Type  lesson — Technical    manual     arts,     Mechanical    Drawing. 
Grade  VII  continued. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Griffith :     Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 

Drawing,  pp.  5,  6,  9  and  plate  1. 
Griffith :     Correlated   Courses  in    Woodwork   and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  p.  91,  Lesson  2,  Grade  VII. 
III.     Assignment: 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII  herewith,  develop 
in  detail  a  technical  drawing  lesson  based  upon  the  reading 
assigned   above. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue   observational   work. 


SPECIAL  METHOD  PROCEDURE 219 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  VII 

Type  lesson — Technical  manual  arts.    Woodwork.    Grade  VII. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Griffith :     Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 

Drawing,  pp.  5,  6,  9  and  plate  1. 
Griffith:     Correlated  Courses  in   Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  p.  98.  Lesson  13. 

III.  Suggested  Reading: 

Other  books  on  mechanical  drawing.     Cf.  finding  lists  in  the 
library. 

IV.  Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII  herewith,  develop 
in  detail  a  lesson  in  technical  woodwork  based  upon  the 
reading  assigned  above. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue   observational   work. 

I.  Topic:  Type  Lesson  VIII 

Type  lesson — Technical  manual   arts.     Woodwork   continued. 
Grade  VII. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Griffith:     Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and  Mechanical 

Drawing,  pp.  5,  8,  22  and  plates  2-4. 
Griffith-:     Correlated  Courses  in    Woodwork  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  p.  98,  Lesson  14. 
III.    Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII  herewith,  develop 
in  detail  a  lesson  in  technical  woodwork  based  upon  the 
reading  assigned  above. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue   observational   work. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  IX 

Type  lesson — Technical  manual  arts.     Metalwork.     Grade  X. 

II.  Required  Reading: 

Hooper  and  Shirley:     Handcraft  in  Wood  and  Metal,  pp.  66, 
67,  Steel  scriber.     Forging  only. 
III.    Assignment : 

1.    Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII,  develop  in  de- 


220        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


tail  a  lesson  in  technical  metalwork  based  upon  the  read- 
ing assigned  above. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue   observational   work. 

I.    Topic:  Type  Lesson  X 

Type  lesson — Technical   manual   arts.     Metalwork   continued. 
Grade  X. 
II.    Required  Reading: 

Hooper  and  Shirley:    Handcraft  in  Wood  and  Metal,  pp.  66, 
67,  Steel  scriber  continued.     Cleaning  up,  hardening,  tem- 
pering. 
III.    Assignment : 

1.  Making  use  of  the  form  in  Chapter  XII,  develop  in  de- 
tail a  lesson  in  technical  metalwork  based  upon  the  read- 
ing assigned  above. 

2.  Student  demonstration  or  teaching  assigned  to , 

who  will  make  all  necessary  preparations  beforehand  in  the 
way  of  materials  and  tools  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor. 

3.  Continue    observational   work. 

In  a  similar  manner  other  lessons  may  be  developed  as 
desired.  In  industrial  arts,  if  the  work  is  organized  for  a 
rather  distinct  differentiation  between  instruction  and  produc- 
tion, as  is  the  case  of  the  work  of  the  Lakeside  Press  School, 
Figs.  19  and  20,  and  the  General  Electric  Co.,  Figs.  21  and  22, 
all  those  type  lessons  dealing  with  instructional  problems  may 
be  made  to  take  the  form  used  in  technical  manual  arts.  The 
chief  consideration  here,  as  in  technical  manual  arts,  is  to 
see  that  systematic  and  orderly  introduction  of  instruction  in 
new  subject-matter  and  methods  is  made  possible.  In  type 
lessons  in  industrial  arts  for  production,  instruction  will  be 
secondary;  the  emphasis  being  placed  upon  the  development 
of  efficiency  in  the  work  in  hand,  which  work  presumably  is 
based  upon  instruction  already  given  in  the  school  shop. 


APPENDIX  II 
Type  Outlines 

The  type  outlines  which  follow  are  intended  to  provide 
readily  accessible  reference  material  for  grades  I  through  VI 
out  of  which  the  student  may  build  type  lessons.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  outlines  the  student  will  do  well  to  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  material  contained  in  standard  texts  having 
to  do  with  subject-matter  under  consideration.  A  list  of  texts 
containing  such  reference  material  may  be  found  by  con- 
sulting library  finding  lists. 

The  outlines  which  follow  are  arranged  in  an  order  pre- 
supposing an  organization  of  teaching  materials  in  manual 
arts  for  general  educational  purposes  as  follows: 

("  a.  Expressional  f  Central  and  illustrative 

Grades  I-VI...4  j      handwork. 

Lb.  Technical  handwork       [ 

f  Technical  shop  and  drafting  work, 
a.  Mechanical  drawing. 
Grades  VII-IX  <!      b.  Woodwork. 
I      c.  Metalwork. 
[     d.  Electrical  work,  etc. 


F  Carpentry  or 
Grades  X-XI...-J  Pattern  making  or 

[  Machine    work,    etc.,    etc. 


Crade  XII. 


'  Organized  for  instruction. 
Production  secondary. 
Pupil  chooses  one  subject. 
Emphasis  on  technic,form. 

Organized  for  production. 
Instruction  secondary. 
Pupil  follows  choice  made 

in  Grade  XI. 
Emphasis  on  skill. 
.  Part-time  work  if  possible. 

Justification  of  the  above  form  of  organization  of  teaching 
materials  will  be  found  in  the  author's  Organization  and  Ad- 
ministration of  Manual  Arts,  a  companion  text  in  preparation. 
Cf.  Fig.  14. 


Carpentry 
Pattern  making 
,  Machine  work,  etc.,  etc. 


221 


222 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


TYPE  OUTLINE— EXPRESSIONAL  HANDWORK 

PICTURE  MAKING  AND   ILLUSTRATED   BOOKLETS 

OBJECTS  AND  SCENES  IN  CRAYON,  PAINT  AND  FREE 

CUTTING 

Prepared  by  Juliaetta  Zeitz 

For  University  of  Missouri  Bulletin,  Vol.  17,  No.  7. 


Grade  I. 

Grade  II. 

Grade  III. 

Grade  IV. 

a 

S 
o 

X 

Washboard 

Tub 

Broom 

Teakettle 

Shoes 

Umbrella 

House 
Furniture 

chairs 

tables 
Igloo 
Wigwam 
Tropical  Hut 

Foreign  homes 
Foreign  people 
Japanese 

temples 
Dutch 

windmills 
Tndian  bow 

and  arrow 

Homes    and 
Costumes   of 

India 

Palestine 

Philippines 
Modes  of 

travel 

V) 

C 

.2 
a, 

o 

o 

c 

Spade 

Horseshoe 

Anvil 

Ax 

Hammer 

Street  car 

Hoe 

Rake 

Boats 

Ice-wagon 

Postman 

Mill-wheel 

Plow 

Sack  of  flour 

Train 

Bucket  of  coal 

Lighthouse 

Fire  engine 

Farm  products 
Manufactures 
Minerals 
Each  group 
classified 
as  to 
home 
foreign 

55 

Trees 

Leaves 

Snowflakes 

Animals 

rabbits 

cats 

bears 

elephants 

camels 

Stars 

Moon 

Trees 

Fruit 

Vegetables 

Animals 

Birds 

Aquarium 
tadpoles 
frogs 
crayfish 
fish 

Birds 

Animals  of 
forest 
farmyard 

Animals 
Trees 
Flowers 
Each  group 
classified 
as  to 
home 
foreism 

8 
•** 

u 
O 
■«-» 
C/3 

Mother  Goose 
Little  Red 

Hen 
The  Three 

Pigs 
Giiigerbread 

Man 
Hiawatha 
The  Pied 

Piper 

Little  Black 

Sambo 
The  Cat  Who 

Forgot  How 

to  Talk 
Jack  and  the 

Bean  Stalk 
Sleeping  Beauty 
Hiawatha 
Story  of  the 

Pilgrims 
Story  of 

Columbus 
The  First 

Thanks- 
giving 

Child's 

Garden  of 

Verses 
Town  of 

Musicians 
Eyes  and 

No-eyes 
Greek  Myths 
Old  Testament 

Stories 
History 

Stories 
Nature 

Stories 

King  Arthur 

and  His 

Knights 
Hero   Stories 
Birds  and  their 

Nestlings 
Phyllis   Stories 

-Nature 
Aladdin 
Alibaba  and 

the  Forty 

Thieves 
Greek  and 

Norse  Myths 

TYPE  OUTLINES 


223 


EXPRESSIONAL  HAND- 
WORK—CONTINUED 

POSTER  MAKING  AND  ILLUSTRATED  BOOKLETS 


j   Grade  V. 


|    Grade  VI. 


i 

bo 
o 
U 

a 


Outline  maps  of  Missouri 
Colored  to  show 

corn  regions 

coal   regions 

fruit   regions 

mineral  regions 

live  stock  regions 

vegetable  regions 

forests 
Animals  of  North  America 


Booklets 

Our  World's  Story- 
Change  of  Seasons — causes 
Revolution  and  Rotation  of 

the  Earth 
Physical  Features  of  North 

America 
Posters  relating  to 
travel  in  America 
travel  in  foreign  lands 
customs,  houses,  people, 

and  costumes  of  foreign 

lands 
chart  showing  the  standard 
time  areas 
evolution  of  travel 
occupations 


Tanglewood  Tales 

scenes 

characters 
Hawthorne's   Life-Story 
Captains  of  Industry 


Christmas  Carol 

scenes 

characters 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth 

scenes 

characters 


Posters 

Paul  Revere's  Ride 
Horatius  at  the  Bridge 

Letters 

Bills 


Illustrations    for   "Travel" 

by  Stevenson 
Rewrite  and  illustrate  stories 

Courtship  of  Miles  Standish 
Letters 
Advertisements 


Sketches   to   illustrate 
stories  of  the  Romans 
stories  of  the  Greeks 
stories  of  the  Germans 
stories  of  the  English 
discovery  of  America 
story  of  the  Pilgrims 
colonial  days 
modern  davs 


The  world  in  Columbus'  time 
Life  of  Columbus 
The  voyage  to  America 
America  as  he  found  it 
Colonial  homes  and  customs 
Indians 

Settlements  made  by 
European  nations 


224 


TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


EXPRESSIONAL  HAND- 
WORK—CONTINUED 
POSTER  MAKING  AND  ILLUSTRATED  BOOKLETS 


Grade  V. 

|  Grade  VI. 

Posters 

Posters  and  charts  showing 

how  we  are  fed 

helpful   birds   and  how   to 

V 

how  we  are  clothed 

keep  them 

a 

how  we  are  sheltered 

harmful  insects  and  how 

rt 

Leaves 

to  get  rid  of  them 

& 

Helpful  birds 

cotton  from  seed  to  cloth 

Useful  plants 

wheat,  corn,  flax,  etc. 

Harmful  insects  and  worms 

our  minerals  and  their  uses 
trees  and  their  leaves 

Designs  for 

Designs  for 
booklets 

book  covers 

rooms 

wall  paper 

wall  paper 

rugs 

houses 

leather  work 

rugs 

< 

costumes 

clothes 

hats 

cross  stitch  embroidery 

Flower  posters 
Plant  posters 

calendars 

Weed  posters 

gift  cards 

Perspective   (one  point) 

<D 

What  to  do  in  case  of  fire 

How  a  sand  filter  works 

G 
1> 

How  to  carry  a  gun 

Street  cleaning  methods 

*5b 

How  to  make  a  stretcher 

How  tuberculosis  is  spread 

>> 

What  to  do  in  case  of  drowning 

A  model  dairy 

How  to  stop  bleeding 

Places  where  germs  breed 

Harmful  work  of  flies 

Posters  illustrating 

Figures    illustrating    fractions 

l 

use  of  fractions 

Figures  illustrating  decimals 

£ 

measures 

Measures 

*«-. 

money 

The  farm  and  its  products 

< 

store  problems 

Checks  and  bills 

TYPE  OUTLINES 


225 


SPECIAL  DAY  PROJECTS 

PICTURE-MAKING  AND  CONSTRUCTION— GRADES  I  to  VI. 

Columbus  Day — Ships,  animals,  Indians,  wigwams,  bow,  arrow. 

Hallowe'en  —  Ghosts,  pumpkins,  apples,  corn,  jack-o'-lanterns, 
witches,  bats,  cats. 

Thanksgiving — Trees,  turkeys,  log  huts,  animals,  cradles,  corn, 
wigwam,  Indians,  pilgrims. 

Christmas — Trees,  candles,  stars,  stocking,  games,  sleds,  Santa 
Claus. 

Lincoln's  Day — Log  cabin,  ax,  wooden  shovel,  pig. 

Valentine's  Day — Valentines,  envelopes. 

Washington's  Birthday — Cherries,  hatchets,  colts,  hats  (three  cor- 
ners), coach,  sword,  raft. 

Longfellow's  Day — Home  and  life,  illustrations  for  "Children's 
Hour",  "Miles  Standish",  and  other  poems. 

Arbor  Day — Trees,  spades,  picks,  sprinkler. 

Circus  Day — Animals,  wagons,  clowns,  chariot,  balloons. 

May  Day — Baskets,  flowers,  May-pole,  queen. 

St.  Patrick's  Day — Shamrocks,  snakes,  lizards. 

Decoration  Day — Flags,  guns,  caps,  cannon. 

Easter — Rabbits,  chickens,  eggs,  baskets,  flowers. 

EXPRESSIONAL   HANDWORK— CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Grade  I. 

Grade  II. 

Grade  III. 

Indian  life 

Field  and  Pasture 

Dopp  Series 

Columbus  Day 

White  Cloud 

Cave  Dwellers 

Thanksgiving 

Jose     the     Cuban 

Tree  Dwellers 

Christmas 

Boy 

Robinson  Crusoe 

Lincoln  Day 

Garden  of  Verses 

The  Line  of  Golden 

Washington  Day 

The   Lighthouse 

Light 

JV 

Eskimo  home 

The  Swing 

Mother  Ocean's 

C3 

Three  little  pigs 

The  Story  of  Ab 

Children 

•3 

An  apple  orchard 

Eyes  and  No-eyes 

The  lumber  camp 

Playgrounds 

St.  Patrick's  Day 

A  cattle  ranch 

m 

Local  activities 

St.  Valentine's  Day 

Home  life  in  other 

Little  Red  Hen 

lands 

Billy  Goat  Gruff 

Japan 
China 
Holland 

226         TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


EXPRESSIONAL   HANDWORK— CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE  AND   CONSTRUCTION 


Grade  I. 


Grade  II. 


Grade  III. 


V 
01 

3 

Play  houses 

Homes  of  story 

Own  home  as  doll 

ffl 

Own  home 

book  friends 

house 

— .  * 

Homes  of  story- 

Own homes  and 

Homes  of  other 

si 

book   friends 

homes  of  other 

children 

•S 

Three  Bears 

children 

Japanese 

JPU 

Little  Jack 

White   Cloud 

Eskimo 

1) 

Horner 

Red  Riding  Hood 

Bedouin 

fa 

The  Three  Little 

Swiss  Children 

c 

a 

Pigs 

The  Dutch  Twins 

9 

What  is  in 

Sources    of    materi- 

Co-operative work 

u 

grocery  store 

als   in   stores 

postoffice 

dry  goods  store 

Do  they  come  from 

tire  department 

0 

(  ) 

<u 

butcher   shop 

near  home? 

How  we  lived  be- 

blacksmith  shop 

Do  they  come   from 

fore  the  stores 

drug  store 

foreign  lands? 

came 

.2 

Sources  of  food  and 

t« 

clothing 

T5 

Sanitation  of  store 

* 

, 

and  street 

Grade  IV. 


c 


Seven  Little  Sisters 
Alibaba    and    the 
Forty     Thieves 
How  Cedric  Became 

a  Knight 
King  Arthur  and 

His  Knights 
The  Children's  Cru- 
sade 
Coal  mine 
African  jungle 
Fishing  industries 


Grade  V. 


Grade  VI. 


Lewis  and  Clark 

Expedition 
Daniel  Boone 
Colonial  history 

tales 
Relief  maps 
Paul  Revere's  Ride 
Panama  Canal 
The  Dog  of  Flan- 
ders 
Robinson  Crusoe 


Home  life  in  for- 
eign lands 
Holland 
Japan 

Animal  life  in  oth- 
er lands ;  in  our 
own  country 

Plant  life  of  the 
continents 

Relief  maps 

Transportation 

Industries 

Irrigation 

Sand  filter 

Travel — Stevenson 

The  King  of  the 
Golden  River 


TYPE  OUTLINES 


217 


EXPRESSIONAL   HANDWORK— CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE  AND   CONSTRUCTION 


Grade  IV. 

Grade  V. 

Grade  VI. 

Puritan  home 

Colonial  home 

Explorers 

<L) 

King  Arthur's  cas- 

Colonial utensils 

Homes  in  Palestine 

o 

tle 

Home  of  Daniel 

Skyscrapers 

w 

Seven  Little  Sisters 

Boone 

European  homes 

Primitive  utensils 

Home  of  Wash- 

European vehicles 

«« 

Primitive  weapons 

ington 

Dolls  in  foreign 

B 

Jit 

a 

o 

W 

Home  of  Lincoln 

costumes 

.2 
C 

Local  industries 

Larger  industries 

Evolution  of  indus- 

p 

Transportation 

shoe  factory 

tries 

Weights  and  meas- 

broom factory 

transportation 

o 

ures 

Sources   of  their 

light 

U 

Advertisements 

material 

heat 

JL> 

Arrangement  of 

Useful  trees   (lum- 

measure 

3 

stores 

ber) 

time 

rt 

Care  of  food 

Ornamental  trees 

Animals  that  fur- 

"C 

Sanitation  of  store 

nish  clothing 

3 

and  factory 

Animals  that  fur- 

G 

Protection  of 

nish  food 

M 

workers  against 
fire  and  accident 

Panama  Canal  and 
locks 

Mine  and  mine  ma- 
chinery 

Plants  that  furnish 

clothing 
Plants  that  furnish 

food 
Manufacture  of 

clothing 

228        TEACHING  MANUAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 


> 

M 

9 

1 

O 

Bound  books 
Box  (hinged  lid) 

paper 
Calendar  pad 

(cloth,  paper) 
Corners  for 

blotting  pad 

(cloth) 
Large  portfolio 
Lettering 

Water  wheels 
Electric  apparatus 
Models  of 

machines 
Athletic  apparatus 

jumping 

standard 

hurdles 
Handkerchief  box 
Stationery  case 
Match  case 
Wood  baskets 

6 

> 
M 

a 

Booklets 

type — 

stiff  cover 

loose  leaf 

use — 

drawings 

maps 

nature   notes 

themes 
Portfolio 
Calendar  pads 

(also  cloth  oi» 

wood) 
Waste  basket 
Box  (cardboard) 
Lettering 

Block    print,     wall 
paper,  rugs,  etc. 

Mechanical  toys 

Sled 

Wagon 

Coping  saw  work, 
three-ply  animals 

N   fC 

H     ,— 1 

Q     « 
N  "3 

<> 

i  s 

w  'a 

> 

M 

5 

< 

■ 
O 

Booklets 

type- 
paper  back    N.B. 

Japanese  sewing 

use — ■ 

maps 

stories 

heroes 
Penny  padholder 
Clipping  case 
Telephone  pad 
Calendar  pad 
Picture  mount 
Filing  case  (with 

two  envelopes) 
Lettering 

Block  print 
Balancing  figures 
Toys 

jumping  jacks 

tops 

kites 
Coping  saw  work, 

one-ply  animals 
Poll  furniture 

«  =s 

o 
S    ^ 

Oh 

S    o 

«  "a 

w 

Q 
< 
M 

a 

Booklets 

type — 

separate  leaves 

Japanese  sewing 

use — > 

drawings 

stories 

nature  notes 
Stiff  paper  box 
Bookmarks 
Portfolio 

(envelope) 
Lettering 

Games,  bean  bags 
Toys 

merry-go-round 
Furnishings  for 

houses 
Furnishings  for 

stores 

W    > 

p 

o 

to 

h4 
i— t 

w 
o 

3 

a 

Calendar  pad 
(rough  cover 
paper) 

Booklets 
type- 
separate  leaves 
cord  fastening 
use^ 
stories 
pictures  of 
birds,  animals, 
etc. 

Bookmarks 

Weaving,    one-half 
inch     measure- 
ments 

Lettering 

Games,  ring  toss 

Toys 

jumping  jacks 
doll's  teeter 

Playhouse 
furniture 

Blocks  (building) 

M 

Q 

3 

a 

Poster  mounts 

Booklets 
type- 
separate  leaves 
cord  fastenings 
use — ■ 

drawings 
cuttings  of 
animals  and 
stories 

Weaving,  one  inch 
measurements 

Easter  baskets 

Christmas  cards 

Lettering 

Doll  house 
furniture 

Toys 
seesaw 
doll's  swing 

Games 

pjBoqpjB3  puB  J3de<i 

pooAV 

TYPE  OUTLINES 


229 


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■2-a*2 

OTHER  BOOKS  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

IRA  S.  GRIFFITH 


Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  and  Mechanical  Drawing 

A  teachers'  manual  giving  reliable  information  concerning  or- 
ganization of  courses,  subject  matter,  lesson  outlines,  methods 
of  teaching,  etc.  The  most  complete  and  thorough  treatment 
of  the  subject  of  teaching  woodworking  ever  published. 

Woodwork  For  Beginners — 

A  simple  treatment  of  elementary  woodwork  especially  adapt- 
ed for  use  as  a  text  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

Essentials  of  Woodworking — 

The  standard  textbook  on  elementary  woodworking  for  stu- 
dents in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades. 

Woodwork  for  Secondary  Schools — 

The  most  complete  and  comprehensive  textbook  on  secondary 
school  woodworking  ever  published. 

Carpentry — 

A  well  illustrated  textbook  for  students  and  apprentices  of 
carpentry.  It  deals  with  frame  house  construction  in  a  clear 
and  fundamental  way. 

Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and  Mechanical  Drawing — 

Contains  a  collection  of  working  drawings  of  50  projects  es- 
pecially suited  for  classes  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

Furniture  Making — Advanced  Projects  in  Woodwork — 

Contains  an  excellent  collection  of  working  drawings  of  pro- 
jects— mainly  furniture — suited   for  high  school  classes. 

Roof  Framing  Tables — 

A  remarkably  convenient  device  for  use  by  the  carpenter  and 
the  apprentice  "on  the  job"  in  framing  the  various  members 
of  square  and  rectangular  roofs. 

Send  for  Catalog. 
Correspondence  Invited. 

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